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		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24111</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
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		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet calculates the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ of conducted transmission media (with cable length $l$):&lt;br /&gt;
*For coaxial cables one usually uses the equation $a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l$.&lt;br /&gt;
*In contrast, two-wire lines are often displayed in the form $a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The conversion of the $(k_1, \ k_2, \ k_3)$ parameters to the $(\alpha_0, \ \alpha_1, \ \alpha_2)$ parameters for $B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ is realized as well as the other way around.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Aside from the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$  the applet can display:&lt;br /&gt;
*the associated magnitude frequency response $\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20},$&lt;br /&gt;
*the equalizer frequency response $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right | = \left | H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  H_{\rm K}(f)\right | $, that leads to a nyquist total frequency response $ H_{\rm CRO}(f) $,&lt;br /&gt;
*the corresponding magnitude square frequency response $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right |^2 $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The integral over $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right |^2 $ is a measure of the noise exaggeration of the selected Nyquist total frequency response and thus also for the expected error probability.From this, the &#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;$\eta_\text{K+E}$ for channel (ger.:&#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;anal) and equalizer (ger.:&#039;&#039;&#039;E&#039;&#039;&#039;ntzerrer) is calculated, which is output in the applet in $\rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Through optimization of the roll-off-factor $r$ of the cosine roll-off frequency response $ H_{\rm CRO}(f) $ one gets the &#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;$ \eta_\text{K}$. This therefore indicates the deterioration of the overall system due to the attenuation function $ a _ {\ rm K} (f) $ of the transmission medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable (German : &#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;abel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the second calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $\alpha_{\rm K}(f)= a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*The dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skin effect]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;small coaxial cable&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm mm$ and $d = 0.5\ \rm mm$ have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4\ \rm mm$ or $d= 0.6\ \rm mm$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate regenerators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  $\approx 1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_1_version_englisch.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the (threshold) decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter (German: $\rm S$ender) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, channel  (German: $\rm K$anal) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver  (German: $\rm E$mpfänger) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off around the Nyquist frequency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_2_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency Response with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off|class=fit]] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;lt;br&amp;gt; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white Gaussian noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{with}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039; with respect to the channel $\rm (K)$ and the receiver $\rm (E)$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+E} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Optimal system: Channel }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1,\ \text{Roll-off factor  } r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]} =\left [ \frac{1}{3/4 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \right ]^{-1}\le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This quality criterion is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+E} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ with $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ \text{MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_6_version1.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number $1$ ... $11$.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in English.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means the left parameter set (blue in the applet), and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means  the right parameter set (red in the applet). For parameters that are marked with an apostrophe the unit is not displayed. For example we write ${\alpha_2}&#039; =2$  &amp;amp;nbsp; for &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_2 =2\,  {\rm dB} / ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 5\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Red} = l_{\rm Blue} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{The resulting parameters from the conversion are }{\alpha_0}&#039; = {k_1}&#039; = 4.4, \ {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0.76, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 11.12.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.7 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Manual==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_5_version2.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the $\alpha$ parameters via sliders&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the $k$ parameters via sliders&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the parameters $f_{\rm Nyq}$ and $r$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection for the graphic display&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Display $a_\text{K}(f)$, $|H_\text{K}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, ...&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Scaling factor $H_0$ for $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|^2$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(I)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of the frequency $f_\star$ for numeric values&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric values for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric values for red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output system efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ in dB&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Store &amp;amp; Recall of settings&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(N)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercise section&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(O)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation of the graphic display:$\hspace{0.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom in), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom out)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Move left),  etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options for graphic display&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and scroll: Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2009 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Sebastian_Seitz_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2009.29|Sebastian Seitz]] im Rahmen seiner Diplomarbeit erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] und [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_Übertragungstechnik#Dr.-Ing._Bernhard_G.C3.B6bel_.28bei_L.C3.9CT_von_2004-2010.29|Bernhard Göbel]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde das Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]]  (Bachelorarbeit, Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] )  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24110</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24110"/>
		<updated>2018-04-07T22:41:40Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet calculates the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ of conducted transmission media (with cable length $l$):&lt;br /&gt;
*For coaxial cables one usually uses the equation $a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l$.&lt;br /&gt;
*In contrast, two-wire lines are often displayed in the form $a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The conversion of the $(k_1, \ k_2, \ k_3)$ parameters to the $(\alpha_0, \ \alpha_1, \ \alpha_2)$ parameters for $B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ is realized as well as the other way around.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Aside from the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$  the applet can display:&lt;br /&gt;
*the associated magnitude frequency response $\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20},$&lt;br /&gt;
*the equalizer frequency response $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right | = \left | H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  H_{\rm K}(f)\right | $, that leads to a nyquist total frequency response $ H_{\rm CRO}(f) $,&lt;br /&gt;
*the corresponding magnitude square frequency response $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right |^2 $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The integral over $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right |^2 $ is a measure of the noise exaggeration of the selected Nyquist total frequency response and thus also for the expected error probability.From this, the &#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;$\eta_\text{K+E}$ for channel (ger.:&#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;anal) and equalizer (ger.:&#039;&#039;&#039;E&#039;&#039;&#039;ntzerrer) is calculated, which is output in the applet in $\rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Through optimization of the roll-off-factor $r$ of the cosine roll-off frequency response $ H_{\rm CRO}(f) $ one gets the &#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;$ \eta_\text{K}$. This therefore indicates the deterioration of the overall system due to the attenuation function $ a _ {\ rm K} (f) $ of the transmission medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable (German : &#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;abel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the second calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $\alpha_{\rm K}(f)= a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*The dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skin effect]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;small coaxial cable&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm mm$ and $d = 0.5\ \rm mm$ have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4\ \rm mm$ or $d= 0.6\ \rm mm$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate regenerators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  $\approx 1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_1_version_englisch.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the (threshold) decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter (German: $\rm S$ender) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, channel  (German: $\rm K$anal) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver  (German: $\rm E$mpfänger) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off around the Nyquist frequency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_2_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency Response with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off|class=fit]] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;lt;br&amp;gt; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white Gaussian noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{with}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039; with respect to the channel $\rm (K)$ and the receiver $\rm (E)$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+E} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Optimal system: Channel }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1,\ \text{Roll-off factor  } r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]} =\left [ \frac{1}{3/4 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \right ]^{-1}\le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This quality criterion is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+E} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ with $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ \text{MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_6_version1.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number $1$ ... $11$.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in English.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means the left parameter set (blue in the applet), and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means  the right parameter set (red in the applet). For parameters that are marked with an apostrophe the unit is not displayed. For example we write ${\alpha_2}&#039; =2$  &amp;amp;nbsp; for &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_2 =2\,  {\rm dB} / ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 5\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Red} = l_{\rm Blue} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{The resulting parameters from the conversion are }{\alpha_0}&#039; = {k_1}&#039; = 4.4, \ {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0.76, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 11.12.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.7 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Manual==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_5_version2.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the $\alpha$ parameters via sliders&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the $k$ parameters via sliders&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the parameters $f_{\rm Nyq}$ and $r$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection for the graphic display&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Display $a_\text{K}(f)$, $|H_\text{K}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, ...&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Scaling factor $H_0$ for $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|^2$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(I)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of the frequency $f_\star$ for numeric values&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric values for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric values for red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output system efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ in dB&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Store &amp;amp; Recall of settings&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(N)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercise section&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(O)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation of the graphic display:$\hspace{0.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom in), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom out)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Move left),  etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options for graphic display&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and scroll: Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2009 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Sebastian_Seitz_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2009.29|Sebastian Seitz]] im Rahmen seiner Diplomarbeit erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] und [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_Übertragungstechnik#Dr.-Ing._Bernhard_G.C3.B6bel_.28bei_L.C3.9CT_von_2004-2010.29|Bernhard Göbel]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde das Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]]  (Bachelorarbeit, Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] )  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24070</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24070"/>
		<updated>2018-03-31T10:15:23Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Applet Description */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet calculates the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ of conducted transmission media (with cable length $l$):&lt;br /&gt;
*For coaxial cables one usually uses the equation $a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l$.&lt;br /&gt;
*In contrast, two-wire lines are often displayed in the form $a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The conversion of the $(k_1, \ k_2, \ k_3)$ parameters to the $(\alpha_0, \ \alpha_1, \ \alpha_2)$ parameters for $B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ is realized as well as the other way around.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Aside from the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$  the applet can display:&lt;br /&gt;
*the associated magnitude frequency response $\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20},$&lt;br /&gt;
*the equalizer frequency response $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right | = \left | H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  H_{\rm K}(f)\right | $, that leads to a nyquist total frequency response $ H_{\rm CRO}(f) $,&lt;br /&gt;
*the corresponding magnitude square frequency response $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right |^2 $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The integral over $\left | H_{\rm E}(f)\right |^2 $ is a measure of the noise exaggeration of the selected Nyquist total frequency response and thus also for the expected error probability.From this, the &#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;$\eta_\text{K+E}$ for channel (ger.:&#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;anal) and equalizer (ger.:&#039;&#039;&#039;E&#039;&#039;&#039;ntzerrer) is calculated, which is output in the applet in $\rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Through optimization of the roll-off-factor $r$ of the cosine roll-off frequency response $ H_{\rm CRO}(f) $ one gets the &#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;$ \eta_\text{K}$. This therefore indicates the deterioration of the overall system due to the attenuation function $ a _ {\ rm K} (f) $ of the transmission medium.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable (German : &#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;abel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the second calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $\alpha_{\rm K}(f)= a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*The dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skin effect]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;small coaxial cable&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm mm$ and $d = 0.5\ \rm mm$ have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4\ \rm mm$ or $d= 0.6\ \rm mm$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate regenerators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  $\approx 1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_1_version_englisch.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the (threshold) decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter (German: $\rm S$ender) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, channel  (German: $\rm K$anal) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver  (German: $\rm E$mpfänger) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off around the Nyquist frequency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_2_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency Response with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off|class=fit]] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;lt;br&amp;gt; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white Gaussian noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{with}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039; with respect to the channel $\rm (K)$ and the receiver $\rm (E)$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+E} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Optimal system: Channel }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1,\ \text{Roll-off factor  } r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]} =\left [ \frac{1}{3/4 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \right ]^{-1}\le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This quality criterion is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+E} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ with $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ \text{MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_6_version1.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number $1$ ... $11$.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in English.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means the left parameter set (blue in the applet), and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means  the right parameter set (red in the applet). For parameters that are marked with an apostrophe the unit is not displayed. For example we write ${\alpha_2}&#039; =2$  &amp;amp;nbsp; for &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_2 =2\,  {\rm dB} / ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 5\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Red} = l_{\rm Blue} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.7 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Manual==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_5_version2.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the $\alpha$ parameters via sliders&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the $k$ parameters via sliders&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the parameters $f_{\rm Nyq}$ and $r$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection for the graphic display&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Display $a_\text{K}(f)$, $|H_\text{K}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, ...&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Scaling factor $H_0$ for $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|^2$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(I)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of the frequency $f_\star$ for numeric values&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric values for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric values for red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output system efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ in dB&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Store &amp;amp; Recall of settings&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(N)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercise section&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(O)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation of the graphic display:$\hspace{0.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom in), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom out)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Move left),  etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options for graphic display&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and scroll: Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2009 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Sebastian_Seitz_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2009.29|Sebastian Seitz]] im Rahmen seiner Diplomarbeit erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] und [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_Übertragungstechnik#Dr.-Ing._Bernhard_G.C3.B6bel_.28bei_L.C3.9CT_von_2004-2010.29|Bernhard Göbel]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde das Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]]  (Bachelorarbeit, Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] )  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24014</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24014"/>
		<updated>2018-03-26T21:15:04Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Zur Handhabung des Applets */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable (German : &#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;abel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the second calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $\alpha_{\rm K}(f)= a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*The dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skin effect]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;small coaxial cable&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm mm$ and $d = 0.5\ \rm mm$ have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4\ \rm mm$ or $d= 0.6\ \rm mm$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate regenerators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  $\approx 1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_1_version_englisch.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the (threshold) decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter (German: $\rm S$ender) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, channel  (German: $\rm K$anal) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver  (German: $\rm E$mpfänger) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off around the Nyquist frequency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_2_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency Response with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off|class=fit]] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;lt;br&amp;gt; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white Gaussian noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{with}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039; with respect to the channel $\rm (K)$ and the receiver $\rm (E)$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+E} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Optimal system: Channel }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1,\ \text{Roll-off factor  } r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]} =\left [ \frac{1}{3/4 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \right ]^{-1}\le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This quality criterion is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+E} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ with $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ \text{MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_6_version1.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number $1$ ... $11$.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in English.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means the left parameter set (blue in the applet), and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means  the right parameter set (red in the applet). For parameters that are marked with an apostrophe the unit is not displayed. For example we write ${\alpha_2}&#039; =2$  &amp;amp;nbsp; for &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_2 =2\,  {\rm dB} / ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 5\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Red} = l_{\rm Blue} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.7 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Manual==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_5_version2.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the $\alpha$ parameters via sliders&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the $k$ parameters via sliders&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Input of the parameters $f_{\rm Nyq}$ and $r$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection for the graphic display&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Display $a_\text{K}(f)$, $|H_\text{K}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, ...&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Scaling factor $H_0$ for $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|^2$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(I)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of the frequency $f_\star$ for numeric values&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric values for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric values for red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output system efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ in dB&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Store &amp;amp; Recall of settings&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(N)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercise section&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(O)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation of the graphic display:$\hspace{0.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom in), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom out)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Move left),  etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options for graphic display&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and scroll: Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2009 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Sebastian_Seitz_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2009.29|Sebastian Seitz]] im Rahmen seiner Diplomarbeit erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] und [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_Übertragungstechnik#Dr.-Ing._Bernhard_G.C3.B6bel_.28bei_L.C3.9CT_von_2004-2010.29|Bernhard Göbel]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde das Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]]  (Bachelorarbeit, Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] )  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24013</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24013"/>
		<updated>2018-03-26T21:07:30Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable (German : &#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;abel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the second calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $\alpha_{\rm K}(f)= a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*The dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skin effect]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;small coaxial cable&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm mm$ and $d = 0.5\ \rm mm$ have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4\ \rm mm$ or $d= 0.6\ \rm mm$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate regenerators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  $\approx 1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_1_version_englisch.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the (threshold) decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter (German: $\rm S$ender) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, channel  (German: $\rm K$anal) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver  (German: $\rm E$mpfänger) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off around the Nyquist frequency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_2_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency Response with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off|class=fit]] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;lt;br&amp;gt; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white Gaussian noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{with}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039; with respect to the channel $\rm (K)$ and the receiver $\rm (E)$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+E} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Optimal system: Channel }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1,\ \text{Roll-off factor  } r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]} =\left [ \frac{1}{3/4 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \right ]^{-1}\le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This quality criterion is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+E} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ with $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ \text{MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_6_version1.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number $1$ ... $11$.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in English.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means the left parameter set (blue in the applet), and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means  the right parameter set (red in the applet). For parameters that are marked with an apostrophe the unit is not displayed. For example we write ${\alpha_2}&#039; =2$  &amp;amp;nbsp; for &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_2 =2\,  {\rm dB} / ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 5\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Red} = l_{\rm Blue} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.7 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_5_version2.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der $k$&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Parameter $f_{\rm Nyq}$ und $r$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl für die graphische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Darstellung $a_\text{K}(f)$, $|H_\text{K}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, ...&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Skalierungsfaktor $H_0$ für $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|^2$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(I)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl der Frequenz $f_\star$ für Numerikausgabe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgabe Systemwirkungsgrad $\eta_\text{K+E}$ in dB&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Store &amp;amp; Recall von Einstellungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(N)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(O)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation der grafischen Darstellung:$\hspace{0.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verschieben nach links),  usw.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten zur Variation der grafischen Darstellung&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
*Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2009 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Sebastian_Seitz_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2009.29|Sebastian Seitz]] im Rahmen seiner Diplomarbeit erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] und [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_Übertragungstechnik#Dr.-Ing._Bernhard_G.C3.B6bel_.28bei_L.C3.9CT_von_2004-2010.29|Bernhard Göbel]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde das Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]]  (Bachelorarbeit, Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] )  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24012</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=24012"/>
		<updated>2018-03-26T21:07:05Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable (German : &#039;&#039;&#039;K&#039;&#039;&#039;abel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the second calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $\alpha_{\rm K}(f)= a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*The dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skin effect]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;small coaxial cable&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm mm$ and $d = 0.5\ \rm mm$ have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4\ \rm mm$ or $d= 0.6\ \rm mm$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate regenerators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  $\approx 1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_1_version_englisch.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the (threshold) decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter (German: $\rm S$ender) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, channel  (German: $\rm K$anal) &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver  (German: $\rm E$mpfänger) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off around the Nyquist frequency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_2_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency Response with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll&amp;amp;ndash;off|class=fit]] &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;lt;br&amp;gt; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white Gaussian noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{with}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039; with respect to the channel $\rm (K)$ and the receiver $\rm (E)$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+E} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Optimal system: Channel }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1,\ \text{Roll-off factor  } r=r_{\rm opt} =1 \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]} =\left [ \frac{1}{3/4 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \right ]^{-1}\le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This quality criterion is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+E} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ with $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ \text{MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_6_version1.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number $1$ ... $11$.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in English.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means the left parameter set (blue in the applet), and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means  the right parameter set (red in the applet).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;For parameters that are marked with an apostrophe the unit is not displayed. For example we write ${\alpha_2}&#039; =2$  &amp;amp;nbsp; for &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_2 =2\,  {\rm dB} / ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })$.&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 5\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Red} = l_{\rm Blue} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ {P_{\rm Red}}/{P_{\rm Blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.7 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldaempfung_5_version2.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der $k$&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Parameter $f_{\rm Nyq}$ und $r$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl für die graphische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Darstellung $a_\text{K}(f)$, $|H_\text{K}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, ...&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Skalierungsfaktor $H_0$ für $|H_\text{E}(f)|$, $|H_\text{E}(f)|^2$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(I)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl der Frequenz $f_\star$ für Numerikausgabe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgabe Systemwirkungsgrad $\eta_\text{K+E}$ in dB&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Store &amp;amp; Recall von Einstellungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(N)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(O)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation der grafischen Darstellung:$\hspace{0.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verschieben nach links),  usw.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten zur Variation der grafischen Darstellung&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
*Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2009 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Sebastian_Seitz_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2009.29|Sebastian Seitz]] im Rahmen seiner Diplomarbeit erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] und [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_Übertragungstechnik#Dr.-Ing._Bernhard_G.C3.B6bel_.28bei_L.C3.9CT_von_2004-2010.29|Bernhard Göbel]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde das Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]]  (Bachelorarbeit, Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] )  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23985</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23985"/>
		<updated>2018-03-24T02:07:49Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This system size is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the Roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldämpfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency response with Cosine–Roll-off|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ mit $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: : &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ {\rm MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in english.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption:&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means &amp;amp;nbsp; Distribution 1 (blau in the applet),&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Distributeion 2 (red in the applet).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg \frac{P_{\rm red}}{P_{\rm blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ \frac{P_{\rm red}}{P_{\rm blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23984</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23984"/>
		<updated>2018-03-23T23:47:45Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This system size is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the Roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldämpfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency response with Cosine–Roll-off|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ mit $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: : &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ {\rm MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in english.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption:&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means &amp;amp;nbsp; Distribution 1 (blau in the applet),&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Distributeion 2 (red in the applet).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg \frac{P_{\rm red}}{P_{\rm blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ \frac{P_{\rm red}}{P_{\rm blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23983</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23983"/>
		<updated>2018-03-23T23:47:11Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the opposite direction the conversion rule for the exponent is:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$k_3 = \frac{A + 0.5} {A +1}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{Auxiliary variable:   }A = \frac{2} {3} \cdot  \frac{\alpha_1 \cdot \sqrt{f_0}}{\alpha_2} \cdot \sqrt{B/f_0}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With this result you can specify $ k_2 $ with each of the above equations:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*For $0.5 \le k_3 \le$ we get the coefficients $\alpha_1 &amp;gt; 0$ and $\alpha_2 &amp;gt; 0$, which are also dependent on $B/f_0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*From $\alpha_1 = 0.3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot MHz}) \hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 3\, {\rm dB}/ ({\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} })\hspace{0.05cm},\hspace{0.2cm}B = 30 \ \rm MHz$ folgt $k_3 = 0.63$ und $k_2 = 2.9 \ \rm dB/km$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This system size is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the Roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldämpfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency response with Cosine–Roll-off|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ mit $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: : &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ {\rm MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in english.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption:&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means &amp;amp;nbsp; Distribution 1 (blau in the applet),&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Distributeion 2 (red in the applet).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg \frac{P_{\rm red}}{P_{\rm blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ \frac{P_{\rm red}}{P_{\rm blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23982</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23982"/>
		<updated>2018-03-23T23:19:47Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm with} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This system size is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the Roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldämpfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency response with Cosine–Roll-off|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ mit $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: : &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ {\rm MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Show solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution are in english.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (like after loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to further describe the applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the following desctiption:&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; means &amp;amp;nbsp; Distribution 1 (blau in the applet),&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; means &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Distributeion 2 (red in the applet).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately with }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response decreases similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{ is dominant due to the skin effect. The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function stay under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The condition above is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How do the parameters affect $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With }k_3 \to 0.5, \text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as in the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{For a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than for a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big are the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ with respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{We need to achieve  }10 \cdot \lg \frac{P_{\rm red}}{P_{\rm blue}} = 2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \Rightarrow \ \ \frac{P_{\rm red}}{P_{\rm blue}} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$ look like? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For } f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz: }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ In between, the effect of the CRO edge can be observed.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5 \text{ is already set }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} = 10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much do the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) \vert = 352000  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==References==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|kabeldaempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23976</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23976"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T23:26:57Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitions:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*As a quality criterion for a given system we use the &#039;&#039;&#039;total efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{Given system:  Channel  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off factor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This system size is specified in the applet for both parameter sets in logarithm form: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Through variation and optimization of the Roll-off factor $r$ we get the &#039;&#039;&#039;Channel efficiency&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldämpfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Frequency response with Cosine–Roll-off|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
The graph shows the square value frequency response $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ mit $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ for the following boundary conditions:&lt;br /&gt;
*Attenuation function of the channel: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist frequency: : &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off factor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following consequences:&lt;br /&gt;
*In the area up to $f_{1} = 10 \ {\rm MHz: }$ $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (see yellow deposit).&lt;br /&gt;
* The flank of $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ is only effective from $f_{1}$ to $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  and $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ decreases more and more.&lt;br /&gt;
*The maximum of  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ at $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  is twice the value of $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*The integral over  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ is a measure of the effective noise power. In the current example this is $4.6$ times bigger than the minimal noise power (for $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ and $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} =10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much does the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) = 352000 \cdot  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23975</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23975"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T23:08:53Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Applet_Kabeldämpfung_3_version2.png|right|frame|Frequenzgang mit Cosinus–Roll-off|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Die Grafik zeigt den Betrags&amp;amp;ndash;Quadrat&amp;amp;ndash;Frequenzgang $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 $ mit $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert = H_{\rm CRO}(f)   /  \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert$ für folgende Randbedingungen:&lt;br /&gt;
*Dämpfungsfunktion des Kanals: &amp;amp;nbsp; $a_{\rm K}(f) = 1 \ {\rm dB} \cdot \sqrt{f/\ {\rm MHz} }$, &lt;br /&gt;
*Nyquist&amp;amp;ndash;Frequenz: : &amp;amp;nbsp; $f_{\rm Nyq} = 20 \ {\rm MHz}$, Roll-off-Faktor $r = 0.5$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus ergeben sich folgende Konsequenzen:&lt;br /&gt;
*Im Bereich bis $f_{1} = 10 \ {\rm MHz}$ ist $H_{\rm CRO}(f)  = 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2 = \left \vert H_{\rm K}(f)\right \vert ^{-2}$ (siehe gelbe Hinterlegung).&lt;br /&gt;
*Erst im Bereich von $f_{1}$ bis $f_{2} = 30 \ {\rm MHz}$  ist die Flanke von $H_{\rm CRO}(f)$ wirksam und $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ wird immer kleiner.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das Maximum von  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f_{\rm max})\right \vert ^2$ bei $f_{\rm max} \approx 11.5 \ {\rm MHz}$  ist mehr als doppelt so groß wie $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0)\right \vert ^2 = 1$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das Integral über  $\left \vert H_{\rm E}(f)\right \vert ^2$ ist ein Maß für die wirksame Rauschleistung. Diese ist im Beispiel um den Faktor $4.6$ größer als die minimale Rauschleistung (für $a_{\rm K}(f) = 0 \ {\rm dB}$ und $r=1$) &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx - 6.6 \ {\rm dB}.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} =10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much does the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) = 352000 \cdot  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23974</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23974"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T23:07:05Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to $l_{\rm blue} =10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much does the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) = 352000 \cdot  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23973</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23973"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T23:06:15Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to l_{\rm blue} =10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much does the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz} \Rightarrow \vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) = 352000 \cdot  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23972</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23972"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T23:00:20Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }37500\text{ for }r=0.7 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -89.2 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.17 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -82.6 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; and $r= 0.17$. Vary the cable length up to l_{\rm blue} =10 \ \rm km$.&lt;br /&gt;
:How much does the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$, the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$ and the optimal rolloff factor $r_{\rm opt}$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The maximum value of } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ increases and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K}\text{ decreases more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{At 10 km length  } 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB} \text{ and } r_{\rm opt}=0.14\text{. For }f_\star \approx 14.5\ {\rm MHz}\Rightarrow\vert H_{\rm E}(f = f_\star) = 352000 \cdot  \approx \vert H_{\rm E}(f =0)\vert$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23971</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23971"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T22:47:21Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 8$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }3320\text{ for }r=0.5 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -110 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.14 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23970</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23970"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T22:40:52Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 2$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.7$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 18.1 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 10$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }3320\text{ for }r=0.5 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -110 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.14 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23969</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23969"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T22:39:25Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 1$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 25 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 8.8 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 10$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }3320\text{ for }r=0.5 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -110 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.14 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23968</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23968"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T22:27:05Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.7\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 1$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 22.5 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 8.8 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 10$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }3320\text{ for }r=0.5 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -110 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.14 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23967</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23967"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T22:19:21Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 0, {k_2}&#039; = 10, {k_3}&#039; = 0.75, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$ and vary the Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What observations can be made based on  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{With }k_2\text {being constant,  }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ increases with bigger values of }k_3\text{ and  }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases faster and faster. With }k_3 =1: a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ rises linearly.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With, }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ the attenuation function is more and more determined by the skin effect, same as the coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 88.1\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0\text{:    }83.7\ {\rm dB}, \hspace{0.2cm}\text{without }\alpha_0 \text{ and }  \alpha_1\text{:    }60.9\ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Based on the previous setting, vary the parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. What do you recognize by means of  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{At constant }k_2\text { }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ becomes increasingly larger and has a linear coursse for }k_3 = 1;\text{ }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases at an increasing rate;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{At }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ The attenuation function of the two-wire line approaches that of a coaxial cable more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How bi is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.67\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.67\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 1$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 22.5 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 8.8 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 10$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }3320\text{ for }r=0.5 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -110 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.14 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23966</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23966"/>
		<updated>2018-03-17T21:11:47Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
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&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
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==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
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==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
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===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
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The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
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===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
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[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
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===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
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===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
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In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
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This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
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In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
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:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
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:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
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:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
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*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
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*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
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Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
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:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
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„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
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wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
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[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
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*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
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==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
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[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
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Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
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In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 5\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 143.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.96.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 65.3\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.99;$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (ca. 0.1 dB) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (ca. 0.6 dB) are comparatively small.}$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 1\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 87.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.7\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 61.3 {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Based on the previous setting, vary the parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. What do you recognize by means of  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{At constant }k_2\text { }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ becomes increasingly larger and has a linear coursse for }k_3 = 1;\text{ }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases at an increasing rate;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{At }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ The attenuation function of the two-wire line approaches that of a coaxial cable more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How bi is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.67\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.67\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 1$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 22.5 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 8.8 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 10$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }3320\text{ for }r=0.5 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -110 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.14 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23919</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23919"/>
		<updated>2018-03-15T06:36:25Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 3\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 39.2\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9951;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 86.0\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9768.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (Ohmic losses) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (crosswise losses) are only ca.  0.2 dB respectively.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 3\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 262.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.95\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = ??? {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Based on the previous setting, vary the parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. What do you recognize by means of  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{At constant }k_2\text { }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ becomes increasingly larger and has a linear coursse for }k_3 = 1;\text{ }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases at an increasing rate;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{At }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ The attenuation function of the two-wire line approaches that of a coaxial cable more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; ={\alpha_2}&#039; = 0$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${k_1}&#039; = 2, {k_2}&#039; = 0, {l_{\rm red} } = 1 \ \rm km$. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How bi is the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -0.67\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue: ideal system) and }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = -2.67\ \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Red: DC signal attenuation only)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor is }r = 1.\text{ Therefore }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = 0 \ {\rm dB}\text{ (Blue) or }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} = -2\  {\rm dB}\text{ (Red)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; The same settings apply as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Under what transmission power  $P_{\rm red}$ in respect to $P_{\rm blue}$ do both systems achieve the same error probability?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{It has to apply:   }10 \cdot \lg \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} =2 \ {\rm dB} \ \ \text{ &amp;amp;rArr; } \ \ P_{\rm red}/P_{\rm blue} = 10^{0.2} = 1.585.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; tof ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 1$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:What course does $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert have$? Calculate the total efficiency $\eta_\text{K+E}$ and the channel efficiency$\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{For} f &amp;lt; 7.5 {\ \rm MHz: } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = \vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert ^{-1}.\text{ For }(f &amp;gt; 22.5 {\ \rm MHz): }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert  = 0.\text{ Inbetween is the effect of the CRO&amp;amp;ndash;flank.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{The best possible rolloff factor }r = 0.5\text{is already set: }\Rightarrow \ 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} = 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx - 8.8 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to ${\alpha_0}&#039; = {\alpha_1}&#039; = 0, \ {\alpha_2}&#039; = 3, \ {l_{\rm blue} }&#039; = 10$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to &amp;amp;bdquo;Inactive&amp;amp;rdquo;. Additionally, set ${f_{\rm Nyq} }&#039; =15$ and $r= 0.5$. &lt;br /&gt;
:How big is $\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert$? What is the maximum value of $\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert$? Calculate the channel efficiency $\eta_\text{K}$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert =  \vert H_{\rm E}(f = 0) \vert ^{-1}= 1 \text{ and the maximum value } \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert \text{ is approximately }3320\text{ for }r=0.5 \Rightarrow 10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+E} \approx -110 \ {\rm dB},$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{0.95cm}\text{because the integral over }\vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2\text{is huge. After the optimization }r=0.14 \text{ we get }10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K} \approx -104.9 \ {\rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23892</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial and Poisson Distribution (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23892"/>
		<updated>2018-03-12T04:27:14Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Applet Manual */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLinkEn|verteilungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This applet allows the calculation and graphical display of &lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ of a discrete random variable $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, that determine its &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) &amp;amp;ndash; here representation with Dirac functions ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ of the &#039;&#039;Cumulative Distribution Function&#039;&#039; (CDF):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Discrete distributions are available in two sets of parameters:&lt;br /&gt;
* the Binomial distribution with the parameters $I$ and $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ possible values,&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with the parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the exercises below you will be able to compare: &lt;br /&gt;
* two Binomial distributions with different sets of parameters $I$ and $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* two Poisson distributions with different rates $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*a Binomial distribution with a Poisson distribution.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of the Binomial Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039; represents an important special case for the likelihood of occurence of a discrete random variable. For the derivation we assume, that $I$ binary and statistically independent random variables $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$  can take&lt;br /&gt;
*the value $1$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the value  $0$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The sum&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i$$&lt;br /&gt;
is also a discrete random variable with symbols from the set $\{0, 1, 2, \cdots\ , I\}$ with size $M = I + 1$ and is called &amp;quot;binomially distributed&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The probabilities to find $z = \mu$ for $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$ are given as&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu},$$&lt;br /&gt;
with  the number of combinations $(I \text{ over }\mu)$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Consider a binomially distributed random variable $z$ and its expected value of order $k$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can derive the formulas for&lt;br /&gt;
*the linear average:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the quadratic average: &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the variance and standard deviation:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $\sigma^2 = {m_2 - m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Binomial distribution has a variety of uses in telecommunications as well as in other disciplines:  &lt;br /&gt;
*It characterizes the distribution of rejected parts (Ausschussstücken) in statistical quality control.&lt;br /&gt;
*The simulated bit error rate of a digital transmission system is technically a binomially distributed random variable.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution can be used to calculate the residual error probability with blockwise coding, as the following example shows.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
When transfering  blocks of $I =5$ binary symbols through a channel, that &lt;br /&gt;
*distorts a symbol with probability $p = 0.1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; random variable $e_i = 1$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*transfers the symbol undistorted with probability $1 - p = 0.9$  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; random variable $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the new random variable $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Error per block&amp;amp;rdquo;) calculates to: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$f$ can now take integer values between $\mu = 0$ (all symbols are correct) and $\mu = I = 5$ (all five symbols are erroneous). We describe the probability of  $\mu$ errors as $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The case that all five symbols are transmitted correctly occurs with the probability of $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$. This can also be seen from the binomial formula for $μ = 0$ , considering the definition $5\text{ over } 0 = 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*A single error $(f = 1)$ occurs with the probability $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$. The first factor indicates, that there are $5\text{ over } 1 = 5$ possibe error positions. The other two factors take into account, that one symbol was erroneous and the other four are correct when $f =1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*For $f =2$ there are $5\text{ over } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$ combinations and you get a probability of $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If a block code can correct up to two errors, the residual error probability is $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. &lt;br /&gt;
A second calculation option would be $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ with the approximation $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The average number of errors in a block is $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$ and the variance of the random variable $f$ is $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  standard deviation $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of the Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; is a special case of the Binomial distribution, where &lt;br /&gt;
* $I → \infty$ and $p →0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Additionally, the parameter $λ = I · p$ must be finite. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The parameter $λ$ indicates the average number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in a specified time unit and is called &#039;&#039;rate&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unlike the Binomial distribution where $0 ≤ μ ≤ I$, here, the random variable can assume arbitrarily large non-negative integers, which means that the number of possible values is not countable. However, since no intermediate values ​​can occur, the Poisson distribution is still a &amp;quot;discrete distribution&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With the limits $I → \infty$ and $p →0$, the likelihood of occurence of the Poisson distributed random variable $z$ can be derived from the probabilities of the Binomial distribution:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
After some algebraic transformations we finally obtain&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The moments of the Poisson distribution can be derived directly from the corresponding equations of the Binomial distribution by taking the limits again:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}   {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} I \cdot p= \lambda,\hspace{0.8cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}  {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can see that for the Poisson distribution $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ always holds. In contrast, the moments of the Binomial distribution always fulfill $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Moments of Poisson Distribution | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
We now compare the Binomial distribution with parameters $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ with the Poisson distribution with $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Both distributions have the same linear average $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Poisson distribution (marked red in the figure) is $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Binomial distribution (marked blue) is $σ = 1.2$.&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Poisson distribution is the result of a so-called &#039;&#039;Poisson point process&#039;&#039; which is often used as a model for a series of events that may occur at random times. Examples of such events are &lt;br /&gt;
* failure of devices - an important task in reliability theory, &lt;br /&gt;
* shot noise in the optical transmission simulations, and&lt;br /&gt;
* the start of conversations in a telephone relay center („Teletraffic engineering”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
A telephone relay receives ninety requests per minute on average $(λ = 1.5 \text{ per second})$. The probabilities $p_µ$, that in an arbitrarily large time frame exactly $\mu$ requests are received, is: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The resulting numerical values are $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From this, additional parameters can be derived:&lt;br /&gt;
* The distance $τ$ between two requests satisfies the &amp;quot;exponential distribution&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
* The mean time span between two requests is ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Comparison of Binomial and Poisson Distribution ===&lt;br /&gt;
This section deals with the similarities and differences between Binomial and Poisson distributions. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomial vs. Poisson distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; is used to describe stochastic events, that have a fixed period $T$. For example the period of an ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) network with $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ is $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm \mu s$. &lt;br /&gt;
* Binary events such as the error-free $(e_i = 0)$/ faulty $(e_i = 1)$ transmission of individual symbols only occur in this time frame.&lt;br /&gt;
* With the Binomial distribution, it is possible to make statistical statements about the number of expected erros in a period $T_{\rm I} = I · T$, as is shown in the time figure above (marked blue).&lt;br /&gt;
* For very large values of $I$ and very small values of $p$, the Binomial distribution can be approximated by the &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; with rate $\lambda = I \cdot p$. &lt;br /&gt;
* If at the same time $I · p \gg 1$, the Poisson distribution as well as the Binomial distribution turn into a discrete Gaussian distribution according to the &#039;&#039;de Moivre-Laplace Theorem&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; can also be used to make statements about the number of occuring binary events in a finite time interval.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
By assuming the same observation period $T_{\rm I}$ and increasing the number of partial periods $I$, the period $T$, in which a new event ($0$ or $1$) can occur, gets smaller and smaller. In the limit where $T$ goes to zero, this means: &lt;br /&gt;
* With the Poisson distribution binary events can not only occur at certain given times, but at any time, which is illustrated in the second time chart. &lt;br /&gt;
* In order to get the same number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in the period $T_{\rm I}$ - in average - as in the Binomial distribution (six pulses in the example), the characteristic probability  $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ for an infinitesimal small time interval $T$ must go to zero.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In these exercises, the term &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; refers to distribution function 1 (marked blue in the applet) and the term &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; refers to distribution function 2 (marked red in applet).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^{10}=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Note that }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, or }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the differences in the linear average $m_1$ and the standard deviation $\sigma$ between the two Binomial distributions?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blue}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Red} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Standard deviation:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blue} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 &amp;lt; \sigma_{\rm Red} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=15, p=0.3)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to Poisson distribution $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What differences arise between both distributions regarding the average $m_1$ and variance $\sigma^2$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Both distributions have the same average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blue}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Red} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomial distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blue}^2 = m_\text{1, Blue} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} &amp;lt; \text{Poisson distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Red}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0 \ {\rm (exactly)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt 0\hspace{0.2cm}( \approx 0)$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Approximation: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \lambda^{16} /{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, which parameters lead to a symmetric distribution around $m_1$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial distribution with }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetric around } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{etc.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{In contrast, the Poisson distribution is never symmetric, since it extends to infinity!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Manual==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_binomial.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter input: Sliders $I$ and $p$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for Red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter input: Slider $\lambda$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphic display of the Distribution&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output of moments for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output of moments for redparameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation possibilities for the graphic display&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom in), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom out)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Move left),  etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output of ${\rm Pr} (z = \mu)$ and ${\rm Pr} (z  \le \mu)$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercises: Exercise selection, description and solution&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options for graphic display&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and scroll: Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2003 by[[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo;  (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;quot;HTML5&amp;amp;quot; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Once again: Open Applet in new Tab==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLinkEn|verteilungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23891</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial and Poisson Distribution (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23891"/>
		<updated>2018-03-12T04:17:29Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Zur Handhabung des Applets */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLinkEn|verteilungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This applet allows the calculation and graphical display of &lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ of a discrete random variable $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, that determine its &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) &amp;amp;ndash; here representation with Dirac functions ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ of the &#039;&#039;Cumulative Distribution Function&#039;&#039; (CDF):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Discrete distributions are available in two sets of parameters:&lt;br /&gt;
* the Binomial distribution with the parameters $I$ and $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ possible values,&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with the parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the exercises below you will be able to compare: &lt;br /&gt;
* two Binomial distributions with different sets of parameters $I$ and $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* two Poisson distributions with different rates $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*a Binomial distribution with a Poisson distribution.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of the Binomial Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039; represents an important special case for the likelihood of occurence of a discrete random variable. For the derivation we assume, that $I$ binary and statistically independent random variables $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$  can take&lt;br /&gt;
*the value $1$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the value  $0$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The sum&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i$$&lt;br /&gt;
is also a discrete random variable with symbols from the set $\{0, 1, 2, \cdots\ , I\}$ with size $M = I + 1$ and is called &amp;quot;binomially distributed&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The probabilities to find $z = \mu$ for $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$ are given as&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu},$$&lt;br /&gt;
with  the number of combinations $(I \text{ over }\mu)$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Consider a binomially distributed random variable $z$ and its expected value of order $k$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can derive the formulas for&lt;br /&gt;
*the linear average:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the quadratic average: &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the variance and standard deviation:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $\sigma^2 = {m_2 - m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Binomial distribution has a variety of uses in telecommunications as well as in other disciplines:  &lt;br /&gt;
*It characterizes the distribution of rejected parts (Ausschussstücken) in statistical quality control.&lt;br /&gt;
*The simulated bit error rate of a digital transmission system is technically a binomially distributed random variable.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution can be used to calculate the residual error probability with blockwise coding, as the following example shows.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
When transfering  blocks of $I =5$ binary symbols through a channel, that &lt;br /&gt;
*distorts a symbol with probability $p = 0.1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; random variable $e_i = 1$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*transfers the symbol undistorted with probability $1 - p = 0.9$  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; random variable $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the new random variable $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Error per block&amp;amp;rdquo;) calculates to: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$f$ can now take integer values between $\mu = 0$ (all symbols are correct) and $\mu = I = 5$ (all five symbols are erroneous). We describe the probability of  $\mu$ errors as $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The case that all five symbols are transmitted correctly occurs with the probability of $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$. This can also be seen from the binomial formula for $μ = 0$ , considering the definition $5\text{ over } 0 = 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*A single error $(f = 1)$ occurs with the probability $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$. The first factor indicates, that there are $5\text{ over } 1 = 5$ possibe error positions. The other two factors take into account, that one symbol was erroneous and the other four are correct when $f =1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*For $f =2$ there are $5\text{ over } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$ combinations and you get a probability of $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If a block code can correct up to two errors, the residual error probability is $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. &lt;br /&gt;
A second calculation option would be $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ with the approximation $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The average number of errors in a block is $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$ and the variance of the random variable $f$ is $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  standard deviation $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of the Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; is a special case of the Binomial distribution, where &lt;br /&gt;
* $I → \infty$ and $p →0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Additionally, the parameter $λ = I · p$ must be finite. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The parameter $λ$ indicates the average number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in a specified time unit and is called &#039;&#039;rate&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unlike the Binomial distribution where $0 ≤ μ ≤ I$, here, the random variable can assume arbitrarily large non-negative integers, which means that the number of possible values is not countable. However, since no intermediate values ​​can occur, the Poisson distribution is still a &amp;quot;discrete distribution&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With the limits $I → \infty$ and $p →0$, the likelihood of occurence of the Poisson distributed random variable $z$ can be derived from the probabilities of the Binomial distribution:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
After some algebraic transformations we finally obtain&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The moments of the Poisson distribution can be derived directly from the corresponding equations of the Binomial distribution by taking the limits again:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}   {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} I \cdot p= \lambda,\hspace{0.8cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}  {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can see that for the Poisson distribution $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ always holds. In contrast, the moments of the Binomial distribution always fulfill $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Moments of Poisson Distribution | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
We now compare the Binomial distribution with parameters $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ with the Poisson distribution with $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Both distributions have the same linear average $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Poisson distribution (marked red in the figure) is $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Binomial distribution (marked blue) is $σ = 1.2$.&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Poisson distribution is the result of a so-called &#039;&#039;Poisson point process&#039;&#039; which is often used as a model for a series of events that may occur at random times. Examples of such events are &lt;br /&gt;
* failure of devices - an important task in reliability theory, &lt;br /&gt;
* shot noise in the optical transmission simulations, and&lt;br /&gt;
* the start of conversations in a telephone relay center („Teletraffic engineering”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
A telephone relay receives ninety requests per minute on average $(λ = 1.5 \text{ per second})$. The probabilities $p_µ$, that in an arbitrarily large time frame exactly $\mu$ requests are received, is: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The resulting numerical values are $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From this, additional parameters can be derived:&lt;br /&gt;
* The distance $τ$ between two requests satisfies the &amp;quot;exponential distribution&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
* The mean time span between two requests is ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Comparison of Binomial and Poisson Distribution ===&lt;br /&gt;
This section deals with the similarities and differences between Binomial and Poisson distributions. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomial vs. Poisson distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; is used to describe stochastic events, that have a fixed period $T$. For example the period of an ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) network with $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ is $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm \mu s$. &lt;br /&gt;
* Binary events such as the error-free $(e_i = 0)$/ faulty $(e_i = 1)$ transmission of individual symbols only occur in this time frame.&lt;br /&gt;
* With the Binomial distribution, it is possible to make statistical statements about the number of expected erros in a period $T_{\rm I} = I · T$, as is shown in the time figure above (marked blue).&lt;br /&gt;
* For very large values of $I$ and very small values of $p$, the Binomial distribution can be approximated by the &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; with rate $\lambda = I \cdot p$. &lt;br /&gt;
* If at the same time $I · p \gg 1$, the Poisson distribution as well as the Binomial distribution turn into a discrete Gaussian distribution according to the &#039;&#039;de Moivre-Laplace Theorem&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; can also be used to make statements about the number of occuring binary events in a finite time interval.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
By assuming the same observation period $T_{\rm I}$ and increasing the number of partial periods $I$, the period $T$, in which a new event ($0$ or $1$) can occur, gets smaller and smaller. In the limit where $T$ goes to zero, this means: &lt;br /&gt;
* With the Poisson distribution binary events can not only occur at certain given times, but at any time, which is illustrated in the second time chart. &lt;br /&gt;
* In order to get the same number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in the period $T_{\rm I}$ - in average - as in the Binomial distribution (six pulses in the example), the characteristic probability  $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ for an infinitesimal small time interval $T$ must go to zero.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In these exercises, the term &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; refers to distribution function 1 (marked blue in the applet) and the term &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; refers to distribution function 2 (marked red in applet).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^{10}=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Note that }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, or }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the differences in the linear average $m_1$ and the standard deviation $\sigma$ between the two Binomial distributions?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blue}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Red} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Standard deviation:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blue} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 &amp;lt; \sigma_{\rm Red} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=15, p=0.3)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to Poisson distribution $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What differences arise between both distributions regarding the average $m_1$ and variance $\sigma^2$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Both distributions have the same average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blue}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Red} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomial distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blue}^2 = m_\text{1, Blue} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} &amp;lt; \text{Poisson distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Red}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0 \ {\rm (exactly)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt 0\hspace{0.2cm}( \approx 0)$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Approximation: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \lambda^{16} /{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, which parameters lead to a symmetric distribution around $m_1$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial distribution with }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetric around } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{etc.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{In contrast, the Poisson distribution is never symmetric, since it extends to infinity!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Manual==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_binomial.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter input: Sliders $I$ and $p$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for Red parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter input: Slider $\lambda$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphic display of the Distribution&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output of moments for blue parameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output of moments for redparameter set&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation possibilities for the graphic display&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom in), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom out)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Move left),  etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output of ${\rm Pr} (z = \mu)$ and ${\rm Pr} (z  \le \mu)$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercises: Exercise selection, description and solution&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options for graphic display&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and scroll: Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2003 by[[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo;  (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;quot;HTML5&amp;amp;quot; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Once again: Open Applet in new Tab==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLinkEn|verteilungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial-_und_Poissonverteilung_(Applet)&amp;diff=23890</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial- und Poissonverteilung (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial-_und_Poissonverteilung_(Applet)&amp;diff=23890"/>
		<updated>2018-03-12T04:17:26Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Zur Handhabung des Applets */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|verteilungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Programmbeschreibung==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses Applet ermöglicht die Berechnung und graphische Darstellung &lt;br /&gt;
*der Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ einer diskreten Zufallsgröße $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, welche die &#039;&#039;Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichtefunktion&#039;&#039; (WDF) &amp;amp;ndash; im Englischen &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) &amp;amp;ndash; der Zufallsgröße $z$ bestimmen &amp;amp;ndash; hier Darstellung mit Diracfunktionen ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*der Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ der Verteilungsfunktion (VTF)  &amp;amp;ndash; im Englischen &#039;&#039;Cumulative Distribution Function&#039;&#039; (CDF):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als diskrete Verteilungen stehen in zwei Parametersätzen zur Auswahl:&lt;br /&gt;
* die Binomialverteilung mit den Parametern $I$ und $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ mögliche Werte,&lt;br /&gt;
*die Poissonverteilung mit Parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der Versuchsdurchführung sollen Sie miteinander vergleichen:&lt;br /&gt;
* je zwei Binomialverteilungen mit unterschiedlichen Parameterwerten $I$ und $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* je zwei Poissonverteilungen mit unterschiedlicher Rate $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*jeweils eine Binomial&amp;amp;ndash; und eine Poissonverteilung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretischer Hintergrund==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Eigenschaften der Binomialverteilung===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Die &#039;&#039;Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039; stellt einen wichtigen Sonderfall für die Auftrittswahrscheinlichkeiten einer diskreten Zufallsgröße dar. Zur Herleitung gehen wir davon aus, dass $I$ binäre und statistisch voneinander unabhängige Zufallsgrößen $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$ &lt;br /&gt;
*den Wert $1$ mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*den Wert  $0$ mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$ annehmen kann. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Dann ist die Summe $z$ ebenfalls eine diskrete Zufallsgröße mit dem Symbolvorrat $\{0, 1, 2, \text{...}\ , I\}$, die man als binomialverteilt bezeichnet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i.$$ &lt;br /&gt;
Der Symbolumfang beträgt somit $M = I + 1.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Wahrscheinlichkeiten der Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Hierfür gilt mit $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Der erste Term gibt hierbei die Anzahl der Kombinationen $(I \text{ über }\mu)$ an: &lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Momente der Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Für das Moment $k$-ter Ordnung einer binomialverteilten Zufallsgröße $z$ gilt: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus erhält man nach einigen Umformungen für &lt;br /&gt;
*den linearen Mittelwert:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*den quadratischen Mittelwert: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Varianz bzw. die Streuung: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma^2 = {m_2-m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anwendungen der Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Binomialverteilung findet in der Nachrichtentechnik ebenso wie in anderen Disziplinen mannigfaltige Anwendungen:  &lt;br /&gt;
*Sie beschreibt die Verteilung von Ausschussstücken in der statistischen Qualitätskontrolle. &lt;br /&gt;
*Auch die per Simulation gewonnene Bitfehlerquote eines digitalen Übertragungssystems ist eigentlich eine binomialverteilte Zufallsgröße.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Binomialverteilung erlaubt die Berechnung der Restfehlerwahrscheinlichkeit bei blockweiser Codierung, wie das folgende Beispiel zeigt. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Überträgt man jeweils Blöcke von $I =5$ Binärsymbolen über einen Kanal, der &lt;br /&gt;
*mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit $p = 0.1$ ein Symbol verfälscht &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Zufallsgröße $e_i = 1$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*entsprechend mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit $1 - p = 0.9$ das Symbol unverfälscht überträgt  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Zufallsgröße $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
so gilt für die neue Zufallsgröße $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Fehler pro Block&amp;amp;rdquo;): &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Zufallsgröße $f$ kann nun alle ganzzahligen Werte zwischen $\mu = 0$ (kein Symbol verfälscht) und $\mu = I = 5$ (alle fünf Symbole falsch) annehmen. Die Wahrscheinlichkeiten für $\mu$ Verfälschungen bezeichnen wir mit $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Der Fall, dass alle fünf Symbole richtig übertragen werden, tritt mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$ ein. Dies ergibt sich auch aus der Binomialformel für $μ = 0$ unter Berücksichtigung der Definition $5\text{ über } 0 = 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Ein einziger Symbolfehler $(f = 1)$ tritt mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$ auf. Der erste Faktor berücksichtigt, dass es für die Position eines einzigen Fehlers genau $5\text{ über } 1 = 5$ Möglichkeiten gibt. Die beiden weiteren Faktoren beücksichtigen, dass ein Symbol verfälscht und vier richtig übertragen werden müssen, wenn $f =1$ gelten soll. &lt;br /&gt;
*Für $f =2$ gibt es mehr Kombinationen, nämlich $5\text{ über } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$, und man erhält $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Kann ein Blockcode bis zu zwei Fehlern korrigieren, so ist die Restfehlerwahrscheinlichkeit $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. Eine zweite Berechnungsmöglichkeit wäre $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ mit der Näherung $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die mittlere  Fehleranzahl in einem Block ist $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$. Die Varianz der Zufallsgröße $f$ beträgt $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  Streuung $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Eigenschaften der Poissonverteilung===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Die &#039;&#039;Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039; ist ein Grenzfall der Binomialverteilung, wobei &lt;br /&gt;
*zum einen von den Grenzübergängen $I → ∞$ und $p →$ 0 ausgegangen wird, &lt;br /&gt;
*zusätzlich vorausgesetzt ist, dass das Produkt $I · p = λ$ einen endlichen Wert besitzt. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Der Parameter $λ$ gibt die mittlere Anzahl der „Einsen” in einer festgelegten Zeiteinheit an und wird als die &#039;&#039;Rate&#039;&#039; bezeichnet. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Im Gegensatz zur Binomialverteilung ($0 ≤ μ ≤ I$) kann hier die Zufallsgröße beliebig große (ganzzahlige, nichtnegative) Werte annehmen, was bedeutet, dass die Menge der möglichen Werte hier nicht abzählbar ist. Da jedoch keine Zwischenwerte auftreten können, spricht man auch hier von einer &#039;&#039;diskreten Verteilung&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Wahrscheinlichkeiten der Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Berücksichtigt man die oben genannten Grenzübergänge in der Gleichung für die Wahrscheinlichkeiten der Binomialverteilung, so folgt für die Auftrittswahrscheinlichkeiten der poissonverteilten Zufallsgröße $z$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus erhält man nach einigen algebraischen Umformungen: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Momente der Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bei der Poissonverteilung ergeben sich Mittelwert und Streuung direkt aus den entsprechenden Gleichungen der Binomialverteilung durch zweifache Grenzwertbildung:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}   {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} I \cdot p= \lambda,$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}  {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus ist zu erkennen, dass bei der Poissonverteilung stets $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ ist. Dagegen gilt bei der Binomialverteilung immer $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Momente der Poissonverteilung | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Wir vergleichen nun die Binomialverteilung mit den Parametern $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ und die Poissonverteilung mit $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Beide Verteilungen besitzen genau den gleichen Mittelwert $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei der Poissonverteilung (im Bild rot markiert) beträgt die Streuung $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei der (blauen) Binomialverteilung ist die Standardabweichung nur $σ = 1.2$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anwendungen der Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Poissonverteilung ist das Ergebnis eines so genannten &#039;&#039;Poissonprozesses&#039;&#039;. Ein solcher dient häufig als Modell für Folgen von Ereignissen, die zu zufälligen Zeitpunkten eintreten können. Beispiele für derartige Ereignisse sind &lt;br /&gt;
*der Ausfall von Geräten – eine wichtige Aufgabenstellung in der Zuverlässigkeitstheorie, &lt;br /&gt;
*das Schrotrauschen bei der optischen Übertragung, und &lt;br /&gt;
*der Beginn von Telefongesprächen in einer Vermittlungsstelle („Verkehrstheorie”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Gehen bei einer Vermittlungsstelle im Langzeitmittel neunzig Vermittlungswünsche pro Minute ein (also $λ = 1.5 \text{ pro Sekunde}$), so lauten die Wahrscheinlichkeiten $p_{\mu}$, dass in einem beliebigen Zeitraum von einer Sekunde genau $\mu$ Belegungen auftreten: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Es ergeben sich die Zahlenwerte $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, usw. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus lassen sich weitere Kenngrößen ableiten:&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Abstand $τ$ zwischen zwei Vermittlungswünschen genügt der &#039;&#039;Exponentialverteilung&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die mittlere Zeitspanne zwischen Vermittlungswünschen beträgt ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gegenüberstellung Binomialverteilung vs. Poissonverteilung===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Hier sollen die Gemeinsamkeiten und die Unterschiede zwischen binomial- und poissonverteilten Zufallsgrößen herausgearbeitet werden. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomialverteilung vs. Poissonverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Die &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039; ist zur Beschreibung solcher stochastischer Ereignisse geeignet, die durch einen festen Takt $T$ gekennzeichnet sind. Beispielsweise beträgt bei ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) mit $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ die Taktzeit $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm &amp;amp;micro; s$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Nur in diesem Zeitraster treten binäre Ereignisse auf. Solche Ereignisse sind beispielsweise die fehlerfreie $(e_i = 0)$ oder fehlerhafte $(e_i = 1)$ Übertragung einzelner Symbole. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die Binomialverteilung ermöglicht nun statistische Aussagen über die Anzahl der in einem längeren Zeitintervall $T_{\rm I} = I · T$ zu erwartenden Übertragungsfehler entsprechend des skizzierten Zeitdiagramms (blau markierte Zeitpunkte).&lt;br /&gt;
*Für sehr große Werte von $I$ und gleichzeitig sehr kleine Werte von $p$ kann die Binomialverteilung durch die &#039;&#039;Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039; mit $\lambda = I \cdot p$ angenähert werden. &lt;br /&gt;
*Ist gleichzeitig das Produkt $I · p \gg 1$, so geht nach dem &#039;&#039;Grenzwertsatz von de Moivre-Laplace&#039;&#039; die Poissonverteilung (und damit auch die Binomialverteilung) in eine diskrete Gaußverteilung über.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die &#039;&#039;&#039;Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039; macht ebenfalls Aussagen über die Anzahl eintretender Binärereignisse in einem endlichen Zeitintervall.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Geht man hierbei vom gleichen Betrachtungszeitraum $T_{\rm I}$ aus und vergrößert die Anzahl $I$ der Teilintervalle immer mehr, so wird die Taktzeit $T,$ zu der jeweils ein neues Binärereignis ($0$ oder $1$) eintreten kann, immer kleiner. Im Grenzfall geht $T$ gegen Null. Das heißt: &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei der Poissonverteilung sind die binären Ereignisse nicht nur zu diskreten, durch ein Zeitraster vorgegebenen Zeitpunkten möglich, sondern jederzeit. Das untere Zeitdiagramm verdeutlicht diesen Sachverhalt. &lt;br /&gt;
*Um im Mittel während der Zeit $T_{\rm I}$ genau so viele „Einsen” wie bei der Binomialverteilung zu erhalten (im Beispiel: sechs), muss allerdings die auf das infinitesimal kleine Zeitintervall $T$ bezogene charakteristische Wahrscheinlichkeit $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ gegen Null tendieren. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;1&#039;&#039;&#039; ... &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; der zu bearbeitenden Aufgabe.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt. Die Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Aufgabenstellung und Lösung in Englisch. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;0&#039;&#039;&#039; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: Binomialverteilung $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: Binomialverteilung $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:Wie lauten die Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ und ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blau: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Rot: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^10=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Wie groß sind die Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Es gilt }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, oder }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blau: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Rot: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Wie unterscheiden sich der Mittelwert $m_1$ und die Streuung $\sigma$ der beiden Binomialverteilungen?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Mittelwert:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blau}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Rot} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Streuung:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blau} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 &amp;lt; \sigma_{\rm Rot} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: Binomialverteilung $(I=15, p=0.3)$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: Poissonverteilung $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:Welche Unterschiede ergeben sich  zwischen beiden Verteilungen hinsichtlich Mittelwert $m_1$ und Varianz $\sigma^2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Beide Verteilungern haben gleichen Mittelwert:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blau}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Rot} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomialverteilung: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blau}^2 = m_\text{1, Blau} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} \le \text{Poissonverteilung: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Rot}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Wie groß sind die Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ und ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0 \ {\rm  (exakt)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt  0 \ ( \approx 0)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Näherung: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \lambda^{16}/{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Mit welchen Parametern ergeben sich symmetrische Verteilungen um $m_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomialverung mit }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetrisch um } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{usw.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Die Poissonverteilung wird dagegen nie symmetrisch, da sie sich bis ins Unendliche erstreckt!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_binomial.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe $I$ und $p$ per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe $\lambda$ per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Verteilungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Momentenausgabe für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Momentenausgabe für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation der grafischen Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verschieben nach links),  usw.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgabe von ${\rm Pr} (z = \mu)$ und ${\rm Pr} (z  \le \mu)$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten zur Variation der grafischen Darstellung&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
*Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2003 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] im Rahmen ihrer Diplomarbeit mit &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde das Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]]  (Bachelorarbeit, Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] )  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verteilungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial-_und_Poissonverteilung_(Applet)&amp;diff=23889</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial- und Poissonverteilung (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial-_und_Poissonverteilung_(Applet)&amp;diff=23889"/>
		<updated>2018-03-12T04:15:36Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Zur Handhabung des Applets */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|verteilungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Programmbeschreibung==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses Applet ermöglicht die Berechnung und graphische Darstellung &lt;br /&gt;
*der Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ einer diskreten Zufallsgröße $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, welche die &#039;&#039;Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichtefunktion&#039;&#039; (WDF) &amp;amp;ndash; im Englischen &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) &amp;amp;ndash; der Zufallsgröße $z$ bestimmen &amp;amp;ndash; hier Darstellung mit Diracfunktionen ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*der Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ der Verteilungsfunktion (VTF)  &amp;amp;ndash; im Englischen &#039;&#039;Cumulative Distribution Function&#039;&#039; (CDF):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als diskrete Verteilungen stehen in zwei Parametersätzen zur Auswahl:&lt;br /&gt;
* die Binomialverteilung mit den Parametern $I$ und $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ mögliche Werte,&lt;br /&gt;
*die Poissonverteilung mit Parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der Versuchsdurchführung sollen Sie miteinander vergleichen:&lt;br /&gt;
* je zwei Binomialverteilungen mit unterschiedlichen Parameterwerten $I$ und $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* je zwei Poissonverteilungen mit unterschiedlicher Rate $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*jeweils eine Binomial&amp;amp;ndash; und eine Poissonverteilung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretischer Hintergrund==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Eigenschaften der Binomialverteilung===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Die &#039;&#039;Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039; stellt einen wichtigen Sonderfall für die Auftrittswahrscheinlichkeiten einer diskreten Zufallsgröße dar. Zur Herleitung gehen wir davon aus, dass $I$ binäre und statistisch voneinander unabhängige Zufallsgrößen $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$ &lt;br /&gt;
*den Wert $1$ mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*den Wert  $0$ mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$ annehmen kann. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Dann ist die Summe $z$ ebenfalls eine diskrete Zufallsgröße mit dem Symbolvorrat $\{0, 1, 2, \text{...}\ , I\}$, die man als binomialverteilt bezeichnet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i.$$ &lt;br /&gt;
Der Symbolumfang beträgt somit $M = I + 1.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Wahrscheinlichkeiten der Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Hierfür gilt mit $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Der erste Term gibt hierbei die Anzahl der Kombinationen $(I \text{ über }\mu)$ an: &lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Momente der Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Für das Moment $k$-ter Ordnung einer binomialverteilten Zufallsgröße $z$ gilt: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus erhält man nach einigen Umformungen für &lt;br /&gt;
*den linearen Mittelwert:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*den quadratischen Mittelwert: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Varianz bzw. die Streuung: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma^2 = {m_2-m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anwendungen der Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Binomialverteilung findet in der Nachrichtentechnik ebenso wie in anderen Disziplinen mannigfaltige Anwendungen:  &lt;br /&gt;
*Sie beschreibt die Verteilung von Ausschussstücken in der statistischen Qualitätskontrolle. &lt;br /&gt;
*Auch die per Simulation gewonnene Bitfehlerquote eines digitalen Übertragungssystems ist eigentlich eine binomialverteilte Zufallsgröße.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Binomialverteilung erlaubt die Berechnung der Restfehlerwahrscheinlichkeit bei blockweiser Codierung, wie das folgende Beispiel zeigt. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Überträgt man jeweils Blöcke von $I =5$ Binärsymbolen über einen Kanal, der &lt;br /&gt;
*mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit $p = 0.1$ ein Symbol verfälscht &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Zufallsgröße $e_i = 1$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*entsprechend mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit $1 - p = 0.9$ das Symbol unverfälscht überträgt  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Zufallsgröße $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
so gilt für die neue Zufallsgröße $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Fehler pro Block&amp;amp;rdquo;): &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Zufallsgröße $f$ kann nun alle ganzzahligen Werte zwischen $\mu = 0$ (kein Symbol verfälscht) und $\mu = I = 5$ (alle fünf Symbole falsch) annehmen. Die Wahrscheinlichkeiten für $\mu$ Verfälschungen bezeichnen wir mit $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Der Fall, dass alle fünf Symbole richtig übertragen werden, tritt mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$ ein. Dies ergibt sich auch aus der Binomialformel für $μ = 0$ unter Berücksichtigung der Definition $5\text{ über } 0 = 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Ein einziger Symbolfehler $(f = 1)$ tritt mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$ auf. Der erste Faktor berücksichtigt, dass es für die Position eines einzigen Fehlers genau $5\text{ über } 1 = 5$ Möglichkeiten gibt. Die beiden weiteren Faktoren beücksichtigen, dass ein Symbol verfälscht und vier richtig übertragen werden müssen, wenn $f =1$ gelten soll. &lt;br /&gt;
*Für $f =2$ gibt es mehr Kombinationen, nämlich $5\text{ über } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$, und man erhält $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Kann ein Blockcode bis zu zwei Fehlern korrigieren, so ist die Restfehlerwahrscheinlichkeit $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. Eine zweite Berechnungsmöglichkeit wäre $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ mit der Näherung $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die mittlere  Fehleranzahl in einem Block ist $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$. Die Varianz der Zufallsgröße $f$ beträgt $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  Streuung $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Eigenschaften der Poissonverteilung===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Die &#039;&#039;Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039; ist ein Grenzfall der Binomialverteilung, wobei &lt;br /&gt;
*zum einen von den Grenzübergängen $I → ∞$ und $p →$ 0 ausgegangen wird, &lt;br /&gt;
*zusätzlich vorausgesetzt ist, dass das Produkt $I · p = λ$ einen endlichen Wert besitzt. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Der Parameter $λ$ gibt die mittlere Anzahl der „Einsen” in einer festgelegten Zeiteinheit an und wird als die &#039;&#039;Rate&#039;&#039; bezeichnet. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Im Gegensatz zur Binomialverteilung ($0 ≤ μ ≤ I$) kann hier die Zufallsgröße beliebig große (ganzzahlige, nichtnegative) Werte annehmen, was bedeutet, dass die Menge der möglichen Werte hier nicht abzählbar ist. Da jedoch keine Zwischenwerte auftreten können, spricht man auch hier von einer &#039;&#039;diskreten Verteilung&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Wahrscheinlichkeiten der Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Berücksichtigt man die oben genannten Grenzübergänge in der Gleichung für die Wahrscheinlichkeiten der Binomialverteilung, so folgt für die Auftrittswahrscheinlichkeiten der poissonverteilten Zufallsgröße $z$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus erhält man nach einigen algebraischen Umformungen: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Momente der Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bei der Poissonverteilung ergeben sich Mittelwert und Streuung direkt aus den entsprechenden Gleichungen der Binomialverteilung durch zweifache Grenzwertbildung:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}   {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} I \cdot p= \lambda,$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}  {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus ist zu erkennen, dass bei der Poissonverteilung stets $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ ist. Dagegen gilt bei der Binomialverteilung immer $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Momente der Poissonverteilung | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Wir vergleichen nun die Binomialverteilung mit den Parametern $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ und die Poissonverteilung mit $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Beide Verteilungen besitzen genau den gleichen Mittelwert $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei der Poissonverteilung (im Bild rot markiert) beträgt die Streuung $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei der (blauen) Binomialverteilung ist die Standardabweichung nur $σ = 1.2$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Anwendungen der Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Poissonverteilung ist das Ergebnis eines so genannten &#039;&#039;Poissonprozesses&#039;&#039;. Ein solcher dient häufig als Modell für Folgen von Ereignissen, die zu zufälligen Zeitpunkten eintreten können. Beispiele für derartige Ereignisse sind &lt;br /&gt;
*der Ausfall von Geräten – eine wichtige Aufgabenstellung in der Zuverlässigkeitstheorie, &lt;br /&gt;
*das Schrotrauschen bei der optischen Übertragung, und &lt;br /&gt;
*der Beginn von Telefongesprächen in einer Vermittlungsstelle („Verkehrstheorie”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Gehen bei einer Vermittlungsstelle im Langzeitmittel neunzig Vermittlungswünsche pro Minute ein (also $λ = 1.5 \text{ pro Sekunde}$), so lauten die Wahrscheinlichkeiten $p_{\mu}$, dass in einem beliebigen Zeitraum von einer Sekunde genau $\mu$ Belegungen auftreten: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Es ergeben sich die Zahlenwerte $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, usw. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus lassen sich weitere Kenngrößen ableiten:&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Abstand $τ$ zwischen zwei Vermittlungswünschen genügt der &#039;&#039;Exponentialverteilung&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die mittlere Zeitspanne zwischen Vermittlungswünschen beträgt ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Gegenüberstellung Binomialverteilung vs. Poissonverteilung===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Hier sollen die Gemeinsamkeiten und die Unterschiede zwischen binomial- und poissonverteilten Zufallsgrößen herausgearbeitet werden. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomialverteilung vs. Poissonverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Die &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomialverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039; ist zur Beschreibung solcher stochastischer Ereignisse geeignet, die durch einen festen Takt $T$ gekennzeichnet sind. Beispielsweise beträgt bei ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) mit $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ die Taktzeit $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm &amp;amp;micro; s$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Nur in diesem Zeitraster treten binäre Ereignisse auf. Solche Ereignisse sind beispielsweise die fehlerfreie $(e_i = 0)$ oder fehlerhafte $(e_i = 1)$ Übertragung einzelner Symbole. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die Binomialverteilung ermöglicht nun statistische Aussagen über die Anzahl der in einem längeren Zeitintervall $T_{\rm I} = I · T$ zu erwartenden Übertragungsfehler entsprechend des skizzierten Zeitdiagramms (blau markierte Zeitpunkte).&lt;br /&gt;
*Für sehr große Werte von $I$ und gleichzeitig sehr kleine Werte von $p$ kann die Binomialverteilung durch die &#039;&#039;Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039; mit $\lambda = I \cdot p$ angenähert werden. &lt;br /&gt;
*Ist gleichzeitig das Produkt $I · p \gg 1$, so geht nach dem &#039;&#039;Grenzwertsatz von de Moivre-Laplace&#039;&#039; die Poissonverteilung (und damit auch die Binomialverteilung) in eine diskrete Gaußverteilung über.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die &#039;&#039;&#039;Poissonverteilung&#039;&#039;&#039; macht ebenfalls Aussagen über die Anzahl eintretender Binärereignisse in einem endlichen Zeitintervall.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Geht man hierbei vom gleichen Betrachtungszeitraum $T_{\rm I}$ aus und vergrößert die Anzahl $I$ der Teilintervalle immer mehr, so wird die Taktzeit $T,$ zu der jeweils ein neues Binärereignis ($0$ oder $1$) eintreten kann, immer kleiner. Im Grenzfall geht $T$ gegen Null. Das heißt: &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei der Poissonverteilung sind die binären Ereignisse nicht nur zu diskreten, durch ein Zeitraster vorgegebenen Zeitpunkten möglich, sondern jederzeit. Das untere Zeitdiagramm verdeutlicht diesen Sachverhalt. &lt;br /&gt;
*Um im Mittel während der Zeit $T_{\rm I}$ genau so viele „Einsen” wie bei der Binomialverteilung zu erhalten (im Beispiel: sechs), muss allerdings die auf das infinitesimal kleine Zeitintervall $T$ bezogene charakteristische Wahrscheinlichkeit $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ gegen Null tendieren. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;1&#039;&#039;&#039; ... &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; der zu bearbeitenden Aufgabe.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt. Die Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Aufgabenstellung und Lösung in Englisch. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;0&#039;&#039;&#039; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: Binomialverteilung $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: Binomialverteilung $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:Wie lauten die Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ und ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blau: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Rot: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^10=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Wie groß sind die Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Es gilt }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, oder }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blau: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Rot: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Wie unterscheiden sich der Mittelwert $m_1$ und die Streuung $\sigma$ der beiden Binomialverteilungen?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Mittelwert:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blau}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Rot} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Streuung:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blau} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 &amp;lt; \sigma_{\rm Rot} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: Binomialverteilung $(I=15, p=0.3)$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: Poissonverteilung $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:Welche Unterschiede ergeben sich  zwischen beiden Verteilungen hinsichtlich Mittelwert $m_1$ und Varianz $\sigma^2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Beide Verteilungern haben gleichen Mittelwert:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blau}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Rot} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomialverteilung: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blau}^2 = m_\text{1, Blau} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} \le \text{Poissonverteilung: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Rot}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Wie groß sind die Wahrscheinlichkeiten ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ und ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0 \ {\rm  (exakt)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt  0 \ ( \approx 0)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Näherung: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \lambda^{16}/{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Mit welchen Parametern ergeben sich symmetrische Verteilungen um $m_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomialverung mit }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetrisch um } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{usw.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Die Poissonverteilung wird dagegen nie symmetrisch, da sie sich bis ins Unendliche erstreckt!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_binomial.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe $I$ und $p$ per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe $\lambda$ per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Verteilungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Momentenausgabe für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Momentenausgabe für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation der grafischen Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom in), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zoom out)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Move left),  etc.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Output of ${\rm Pr} (z = \mu)$ and ${\rm Pr} (z  \le \mu)$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercises: Exercise selection, description and solution&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options for graphic display&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and scroll: Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
*Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2003 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] im Rahmen ihrer Diplomarbeit mit &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde das Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]]  (Bachelorarbeit, Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] )  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verteilungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23888</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial and Poisson Distribution (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23888"/>
		<updated>2018-03-12T04:07:51Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLinkEn|verteilungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This applet allows the calculation and graphical display of &lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ of a discrete random variable $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, that determine its &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) &amp;amp;ndash; here representation with Dirac functions ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ of the &#039;&#039;Cumulative Distribution Function&#039;&#039; (CDF):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Discrete distributions are available in two sets of parameters:&lt;br /&gt;
* the Binomial distribution with the parameters $I$ and $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ possible values,&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with the parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the exercises below you will be able to compare: &lt;br /&gt;
* two Binomial distributions with different sets of parameters $I$ and $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* two Poisson distributions with different rates $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*a Binomial distribution with a Poisson distribution.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of the Binomial Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039; represents an important special case for the likelihood of occurence of a discrete random variable. For the derivation we assume, that $I$ binary and statistically independent random variables $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$  can take&lt;br /&gt;
*the value $1$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the value  $0$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The sum&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i$$&lt;br /&gt;
is also a discrete random variable with symbols from the set $\{0, 1, 2, \cdots\ , I\}$ with size $M = I + 1$ and is called &amp;quot;binomially distributed&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The probabilities to find $z = \mu$ for $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$ are given as&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu},$$&lt;br /&gt;
with  the number of combinations $(I \text{ over }\mu)$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Consider a binomially distributed random variable $z$ and its expected value of order $k$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can derive the formulas for&lt;br /&gt;
*the linear average:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the quadratic average: &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the variance and standard deviation:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $\sigma^2 = {m_2 - m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of the Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Binomial distribution has a variety of uses in telecommunications as well as in other disciplines:  &lt;br /&gt;
*It characterizes the distribution of rejected parts (Ausschussstücken) in statistical quality control.&lt;br /&gt;
*The simulated bit error rate of a digital transmission system is technically a binomially distributed random variable.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution can be used to calculate the residual error probability with blockwise coding, as the following example shows.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
When transfering  blocks of $I =5$ binary symbols through a channel, that &lt;br /&gt;
*distorts a symbol with probability $p = 0.1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; random variable $e_i = 1$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*transfers the symbol undistorted with probability $1 - p = 0.9$  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; random variable $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the new random variable $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Error per block&amp;amp;rdquo;) calculates to: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$f$ can now take integer values between $\mu = 0$ (all symbols are correct) and $\mu = I = 5$ (all five symbols are erroneous). We describe the probability of  $\mu$ errors as $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The case that all five symbols are transmitted correctly occurs with the probability of $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$. This can also be seen from the binomial formula for $μ = 0$ , considering the definition $5\text{ over } 0 = 1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*A single error $(f = 1)$ occurs with the probability $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$. The first factor indicates, that there are $5\text{ over } 1 = 5$ possibe error positions. The other two factors take into account, that one symbol was erroneous and the other four are correct when $f =1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*For $f =2$ there are $5\text{ over } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$ combinations and you get a probability of $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If a block code can correct up to two errors, the residual error probability is $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. &lt;br /&gt;
A second calculation option would be $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ with the approximation $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The average number of errors in a block is $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$ and the variance of the random variable $f$ is $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  standard deviation $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of the Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; is a special case of the Binomial distribution, where &lt;br /&gt;
* $I → \infty$ and $p →0$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Additionally, the parameter $λ = I · p$ must be finite. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The parameter $λ$ indicates the average number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in a specified time unit and is called &#039;&#039;rate&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unlike the Binomial distribution where $0 ≤ μ ≤ I$, here, the random variable can assume arbitrarily large non-negative integers, which means that the number of possible values is not countable. However, since no intermediate values ​​can occur, the Poisson distribution is still a &amp;quot;discrete distribution&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With the limits $I → \infty$ and $p →0$, the likelihood of occurence of the Poisson distributed random variable $z$ can be derived from the probabilities of the Binomial distribution:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
After some algebraic transformations we finally obtain&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The moments of the Poisson distribution can be derived directly from the corresponding equations of the Binomial distribution by taking the limits again:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}   {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} I \cdot p= \lambda,\hspace{0.8cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty, \hspace{0.2cm}  {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \hspace{0.2cm} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can see that for the Poisson distribution $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ always holds. In contrast, the moments of the Binomial distribution always fulfill $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Moments of Poisson Distribution | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
We now compare the Binomial distribution with parameters $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ with the Poisson distribution with $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Both distributions have the same linear average $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Poisson distribution (marked red in the figure) is $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Binomial distribution (marked blue) is $σ = 1.2$.&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of the Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Poisson distribution is the result of a so-called &#039;&#039;Poisson point process&#039;&#039; which is often used as a model for a series of events that may occur at random times. Examples of such events are &lt;br /&gt;
* failure of devices - an important task in reliability theory, &lt;br /&gt;
* shot noise in the optical transmission simulations, and&lt;br /&gt;
* the start of conversations in a telephone relay center („Teletraffic engineering”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
A telephone relay receives ninety requests per minute on average $(λ = 1.5 \text{ per second})$. The probabilities $p_µ$, that in an arbitrarily large time frame exactly $\mu$ requests are received, is: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The resulting numerical values are $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From this, additional parameters can be derived:&lt;br /&gt;
* The distance $τ$ between two requests satisfies the &amp;quot;exponential distribution&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
* The mean time span between two requests is ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Comparison of Binomial and Poisson Distribution ===&lt;br /&gt;
This section deals with the similarities and differences between Binomial and Poisson distributions. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomial vs. Poisson distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; is used to describe stochastic events, that have a fixed period $T$. For example the period of an ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) network with $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ is $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm \mu s$. &lt;br /&gt;
* Binary events such as the error-free $(e_i = 0)$/ faulty $(e_i = 1)$ transmission of individual symbols only occur in this time frame.&lt;br /&gt;
* With the Binomial distribution, it is possible to make statistical statements about the number of expected erros in a period $T_{\rm I} = I · T$, as is shown in the time figure above (marked blue).&lt;br /&gt;
* For very large values of $I$ and very small values of $p$, the Binomial distribution can be approximated by the &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; with rate $\lambda = I \cdot p$. &lt;br /&gt;
* If at the same time $I · p \gg 1$, the Poisson distribution as well as the Binomial distribution turn into a discrete Gaussian distribution according to the &#039;&#039;de Moivre-Laplace Theorem&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; can also be used to make statements about the number of occuring binary events in a finite time interval.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
By assuming the same observation period $T_{\rm I}$ and increasing the number of partial periods $I$, the period $T$, in which a new event ($0$ or $1$) can occur, gets smaller and smaller. In the limit where $T$ goes to zero, this means: &lt;br /&gt;
* With the Poisson distribution binary events can not only occur at certain given times, but at any time, which is illustrated in the second time chart. &lt;br /&gt;
* In order to get the same number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in the period $T_{\rm I}$ - in average - as in the Binomial distribution (six pulses in the example), the characteristic probability  $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ for an infinitesimal small time interval $T$ must go to zero.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In these exercises, the term &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; refers to distribution function 1 (marked blue in the applet) and the term &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; refers to distribution function 2 (marked red in applet).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp;  Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^{10}=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Note that }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, or }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the differences in the linear average $m_1$ and the standard deviation $\sigma$ between the two Binomial distributions?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blue}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Red} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Standard deviation:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blue} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 &amp;lt; \sigma_{\rm Red} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to Binomial distribution $(I=15, p=0.3)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to Poisson distribution $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What differences arise between both distributions regarding the average $m_1$ and variance $\sigma^2$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Both distributions have the same average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blue}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Red} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomial distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blue}^2 = m_\text{1, Blue} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} &amp;lt; \text{Poisson distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Red}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0 \ {\rm (exactly)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt 0\hspace{0.2cm}( \approx 0)$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Approximation: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \lambda^{16} /{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as in &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, which parameters lead to a symmetric distribution around $m_1$?&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial distribution with }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetric around } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{etc.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{In contrast, the Poisson distribution is never symmetric, since it extends to infinity!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_binomial.png|left|600px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe $I$ und $p$ per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe $\lambda$ per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Verteilungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Momentenausgabe für blauen Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Momentenausgabe für roten Parametersatz&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation der grafischen Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rm o$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$ &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verschieben nach links),  usw.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgabe von ${\rm Pr} (z = \mu)$ und ${\rm Pr} (z  \le \mu)$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten zur Variation der grafischen Darstellung&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
*Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2003 by[[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo;  (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;quot;HTML5&amp;amp;quot; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Once again: Open Applet in new Tab==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLinkEn|verteilungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23885</id>
		<title>Applets:Linear Distortions of Periodic Signals</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23885"/>
		<updated>2018-03-10T01:09:10Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet illustrates the effects of linear distortions (attenuation distortions and phase distortions) with&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Meanings of the  used signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
*the input signal $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*the output signal $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the matched output signal $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the difference signal &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The next block in the model above is &#039;&#039;Matching&#039;&#039;: The output signal $y(t)$ is adjusted in amplitude and phase with equal quantities $k_{\rm M}$ and $\tau_{\rm M}$ for all frequencies which means that this is not a frequency-dependent equalization. Using the signal $z(t)$, one can differentiate between:&lt;br /&gt;
*attenuation distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant attenuation, as well as&lt;br /&gt;
*phase distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant delay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ is used to measure the strength of the linear distortion and is defined as:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale|&#039;&#039;&#039;German description&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Distortions refer to generally unwanted alterations of a message signal through a transmission system. Together with the strong stochastic effects (noise, crosstalk, etc.), they are a crucial limitation for the quality and rate of transmission.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Just as the intensity of noise can be assessed through &lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm N}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039; (SNR) $\rho_{\rm N}$, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distortions can be quantified through&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039; (SDR)&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signal \ Power}{\rm Distortion \ Power} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Linear and Nonlinear Distortions ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
A distinction is made between linear and nonlinear distortions:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nonlinear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;  occur, if at all times $t$ the nonlinear correlation $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ exists between the signal values $x = x(t)$ at the input and $y = y(t)$ at the output, whereby  $y = g(x)$ is defined as the system&#039;s nonlinear characteristic. By creating a cosine signal at the input with frequency $f_0$ the output signal includes  $f_0$, as well as  multiple harmonic waves. We conclude that new frequencies arise through nonlinear distortion.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|For clarification of nonlinear distortions |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Description of a linear system|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Linear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur,  if the transmission channel is characterized by a frequency response $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ Various frequencies are attenuated and delayed differently. Characteristic of this is that although frequencies can disappear (for example, through a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass, a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, or a band&amp;amp;ndash;pass),  no new frequencies can arise. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet only linear distortions are considered.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Description Forms for the Frequency Response ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The generally complex valued frequency response can be represented as follows: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following description variables: &lt;br /&gt;
*The absolute value $|H(f)|$ is called &#039;&#039;&#039;amplitude response&#039;&#039;&#039; and in logarithmic form &#039;&#039;&#039;attenuation function&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Decibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The &#039;&#039;&#039;phase function&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ indicates the negative frequency&amp;amp;ndash;dependent angle of $H(f)$ in the complex plane based on the real axis: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Low&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a low&amp;amp;ndash;Pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (LP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the RC low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is a first order low&amp;amp;ndash;pass. Consequently we can obtain &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_i/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== High&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable high&amp;amp;ndash;pass  (HP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the LC high pass is a first order high pass. Consequently we can obtain  &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f_i)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2\pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2\pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phase function $b(f)$ of high&amp;amp;ndash;pass and low&amp;amp;ndash;pass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
This graphic shows the phase function $b(f)$ with the cut&amp;amp;ndash;off frequency $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ and order $N=1$&lt;br /&gt;
* of a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (green curve),&lt;br /&gt;
* of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass (violet curve).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The input signal is sinusoidal with frequency $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$ whereby this signal is only turned on at $t=0$: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad\begin{array}{l} (t &amp;lt; 0), \\   (t&amp;gt;0). \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The left graphic shows the signal $x(t)$. The dashed line marks the first zero at  $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$. The other two graphics show the output signals $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ of  low&amp;amp;ndash;pass  and high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, whereby the change in amplitude was balanced in both cases.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Input signal $x(t)$  (enframed in blue) as well as output signals  $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; green and $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; magenta]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*The first zero of the signal $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ after the low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is delayed by $\tau_{\rm LP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ compared to the first zero of $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; marked with green arrow, whereby $b_{\rm LP}(f/f_{\rm S} = 0.9 \ {\rm rad})$ was considered.&lt;br /&gt;
* In contrast, the phase delay of the high&amp;amp;ndash;pass is negative:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx -0.085 \ {\rm ms}$  and therefore the first zero of $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ occurs before the dashed line.&lt;br /&gt;
*Following this transient response, in both cases the zero crossings again come in the raster of the period duration $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;Remark:&#039;&#039; The shown signals were created using the interactive applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Causal systems &amp;amp;ndash; Laplace transform]]. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Attenuation and Phase Distortions  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Requirements for a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
The adjacent figure shows&lt;br /&gt;
*the even attenuation function $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*the uneven  function curve $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
of a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel. One can see: &lt;br /&gt;
*In a distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free system the attenuation function $a(f)$ must be constant between$f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ around the carrier frequency $f_{\rm T}$, where the input signal  exists &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $X(f) \ne 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
*From the specified constant attenuation value $6 \ \rm dB$ follows for the amplitude response $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; the signal values of all frequencies are thus halved by the system &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;no attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*In addition, in such a system,  the phase function $b(f)$ between $f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ must increase linearly with the frequency. As a result, all frequency components are delayed by the same phase delay $τ$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  &#039;&#039;&#039;no phase distortion&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*The delay $τ$ is fixed by the slope of $b(f)$. The phase function $b(f) \equiv 0$ would result in a delay&amp;amp;ndash;less system  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The following summary considers that &amp;amp;ndash; in this applet &amp;amp;ndash; the input signal is always the sum of two harmonic oscillations,&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
and therefore the channel influence is fully described by the attenuation factors $\alpha_1$ and $\alpha_2$ as well as the phase delays  $\tau_1$ and $\tau_2$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Summary:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*A signal $y(t)$ is only &#039;&#039;&#039;distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free&#039;&#039;&#039; compared to $x(t)$ if $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$. If $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ and $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, then there are exclusively attenuation distortions. &lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Phase distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. If $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ and $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, then there are exclusively phase distortions.  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; We consider the parameters $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$ for the input signal $x(t)$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Calculate the signal&#039;s period duration $T_0$ and power $P_x$. Can you read the value for $P_x$ off the applet? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ greatest common divisor }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, if }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Vary $\varphi_2$ between $\pm 180^\circ$ while keeping all other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $T_0$ and $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vary $f_2$ between $0 \le f_2 \le 10\ {\rm kHz}$ while keeping all  other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes if }f_2 \ne 0\text{ and } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ changes if }f_2\text{is not a multiple of }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1\cos(\varphi_1) + A_2\cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin(\varphi_1) + A_2\sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{With } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Keeping the previous input signal $x(t)$, set following parameters&lt;br /&gt;
: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$, $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Are there linear distortions? Calculate the received power $P_y$ and the power $P_\varepsilon$ of the differential signal $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ is only attenuated and delayed, but not distorted.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Received power:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ is significantly larger:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; With the same settings as in Exercise (4), vary the matching parameters $k_{\rm M} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}$. How big is the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ is equal to }P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the ideal matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Neither attenuation nor phase distortion.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $(\rm SDR) \ \rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ and } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Attenuation distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.84} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.071 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Phase distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Are there attenuation distortions? Are there phase distortions? How can $y(t)$ be approximated?  &#039;&#039;Hint:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Both attenuation and phase distortions, because }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ and }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Using the parameters from  Exercise  (8),  calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio  $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Best possible adaptation:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.15 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.15 \approx 3.3}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Now we set $A_2 = 0$ and $A_1 =  1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. The channel is a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of  order  1&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $\underline{(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})}$. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Are there any attenuation  and/or phase distortions? Calculate the channel coefficients $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{At only one frequency there are neither attenuation nor phase distortions.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Attenuation factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phase factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; How do the channel parameters change when using a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 1  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ and $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125 = 0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and is retarded: The cosine turns into a sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences arise when using a  &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;High-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Since }f_1 = f_0\text{ the attenuation factor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ stays the same and }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ which means:}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is also only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and precedes it: The cosine turns into the Minus&amp;amp;ndash;sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences at the signal $y(t)$ can be observed between the Low-pass and the High-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$ when you start with the initial input signal according to Exercise (1) and continuously raise $f_2$ up to $10 \ \rm kHz$ ? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the Low-pass the second term is increasingly suppressed. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the High-pass however the second  term dominates. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ {\rm ms}) + x_2(t).$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Manual==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_verzerrungen.png|center]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter selection for input signal $x(t)$ per slider: Amplitude, frequency, phase values&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for channel parameters per slider: Low-pass or High-pass&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selction of channel parameters per slider: Dämpfungsfaktoren und Phasenlaufzeiten&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of channel parameters for High and Low pass: Order$n$, cut-off-frequency $f_0$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of matching parameters $k_{\rm M}$ and $\varphi_{\rm M}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of the signals to be displayed: $x(t)$,  $y(t)$, $z(t)$, $\varepsilon(t)$, $\varepsilon^2(t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphic display of the signals&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Enter the time $t_*$ for the numeric output&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; numeric output of the signal values $x(t_*)$,  $y(t_*)$, $z(t_*)$  and $\varepsilon(t_*)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric output of the main result $P_\varepsilon$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Save and reall parameters&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercises: Exercise selection, description and solution&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation possibilities for the graphic display&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;functions &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (scale up), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (scale down) und $\rm o$ (reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Move with &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (section to the left, ordinate to the right),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Hold shift and scroll:  Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] ). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Once again: Open Applet in new Tab==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Applets|^Periodendauer^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23839</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23839"/>
		<updated>2018-03-07T00:39:17Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Versuchsdurchführung */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
*Exercise description and solution in english&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; First set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ and then to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$. The cable length is $l_{\rm Blue}= 3\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Interpret  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, in particular the functional values $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ and $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{The attenuation function increases approximately }\sqrt{f}\text{ and the magnitude frequency response falls similarly to an exponential function};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 39.2\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9951;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 86.0\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9768.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Blue} = 3\ \rm km$. How is $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ affected by $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\alpha_2\text{is crucial (Skin effect). The contributions of } \alpha_0\text{  (Ohmic losses) and }\alpha_1 \text{  (crosswise losses) are only ca.  0.2 dB respectively.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Additionally, set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and $l_{\rm Red} = 3\ \rm km$. What is the resulting value for $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Up to what length $l_{\rm Red}$ does the red attenuation function go under the blue one?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Red curve:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 262.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. The above condition is fulfilled for }l_{\rm Red} = 0.95\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = ??? {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to $\text{Conversion of Red}$. For the length use $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Analyse and interpret the displayed functions $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Very good approximation of the two-wire line through the blue parameter set, both with regard to }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{, as well as }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; We assume the settings of &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Which parts of the attenuation function are due to ohmic loss, lateral losses and skin effect?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Solution based on &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{With a two-wire cable, the influence of the longitudinal and transverse losses is significantly greater than with a coaxial cable.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Based on the previous setting, vary the parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. What do you recognize by means of  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ and  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{At constant }k_2\text { }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ becomes increasingly larger and has a linear coursse for }k_3 = 1;\text{ }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ decreases at an increasing rate;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{At }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ The attenuation function of the two-wire line approaches that of a coaxial cable more and more.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23838</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23838"/>
		<updated>2018-03-07T00:07:14Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$, Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;1&#039;&#039;&#039; ... &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; der zu bearbeitenden Aufgabe.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt. Die Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Aufgabenstellung und Lösung in Englisch. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;0&#039;&#039;&#039; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; zunächst auf $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ und anschließend auf $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$. Die Kabellänge sei jeweils $l_{\rm Blau}= 3\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, insbesondere die Funktionswerte $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ und $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Näherungsweise steigt die Dämpfungsfunktion mit }\sqrt{f}\text{ und der Betragsfrequenzgang fällt ähnlich einer Exponentialfunktion};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 39.2\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9951;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 86.0\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9768.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Für &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; gelte $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Blau} = 3\ \rm km$. Wie wird $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ von $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$ beeinflusst?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Entscheidend ist }\alpha_2\text{  (Skineffekt). Die Beiträge von } \alpha_0\text{  (Ohmsche Verluste) und }\alpha_1 \text{  (Querverluste) sind jeweils nur ca.  0.2 dB.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie zusätzlich &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Rot} = 3\ \rm km$. Welcher Wert ergibt sich für $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Bis zu welcher Länge $l_{\rm Rot}$ liegt die rote Dämfungsfunktion unter der blauen?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Für die rote Kurve gilt:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 262.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. Obige Bedingung wird erfüllt für }l_{\rm Rot} = 0.95\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = ??? {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Conversion of Red}$. Es gelte $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie die dargestellten Funktionsverläufe für $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Sehr gute Approximation der Zweidrahtleitung durch den blauen Parametersatz, sowohl bezüglich }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{ als auch }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Welche Anteile der Dämpfungsfunktion gehen auf Ohmschen Verlust, Querverluste und Skineffekt zurück?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Lösung anhand &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Bei einer Zweidrahtleitung ist der Einfluss der Längs&amp;amp;ndash; und der Querverluste signifikant größer als bei einem Koaxialkabel.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie ausgehend von der bisherigen Einstellung den Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. Was erkennt man anhand von  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Bei festem }k_2\text {wird }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ immer größer und es ergibt sich für }k_3 = 1\text{ ein linearer Verlauf; }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ nimmt immer schneller ab;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Mit }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ nähert sich die Dämpfungsfunktion der Zweidrahtleitung der eines Koaxialkabels immer mehr an.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
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==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
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==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23837</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23837"/>
		<updated>2018-03-07T00:01:29Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
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The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
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===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$,  Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|first Nyquist criterion]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Intersymbol Interferences]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In the case of white noise, the transmission quality is thus determined solely by the noise power in front of the receiver:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The lowest possible noise performance results with an ideal channel &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ and a rectangular $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ in $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimal system: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;1&#039;&#039;&#039; ... &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; der zu bearbeitenden Aufgabe.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt. Die Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Aufgabenstellung und Lösung in Englisch. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;0&#039;&#039;&#039; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; zunächst auf $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ und anschließend auf $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$. Die Kabellänge sei jeweils $l_{\rm Blau}= 3\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, insbesondere die Funktionswerte $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ und $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Näherungsweise steigt die Dämpfungsfunktion mit }\sqrt{f}\text{ und der Betragsfrequenzgang fällt ähnlich einer Exponentialfunktion};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 39.2\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9951;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 86.0\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9768.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Für &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; gelte $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Blau} = 3\ \rm km$. Wie wird $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ von $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$ beeinflusst?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Entscheidend ist }\alpha_2\text{  (Skineffekt). Die Beiträge von } \alpha_0\text{  (Ohmsche Verluste) und }\alpha_1 \text{  (Querverluste) sind jeweils nur ca.  0.2 dB.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie zusätzlich &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Rot} = 3\ \rm km$. Welcher Wert ergibt sich für $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Bis zu welcher Länge $l_{\rm Rot}$ liegt die rote Dämfungsfunktion unter der blauen?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Für die rote Kurve gilt:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 262.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. Obige Bedingung wird erfüllt für }l_{\rm Rot} = 0.95\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = ??? {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Conversion of Red}$. Es gelte $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie die dargestellten Funktionsverläufe für $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Sehr gute Approximation der Zweidrahtleitung durch den blauen Parametersatz, sowohl bezüglich }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{ als auch }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Welche Anteile der Dämpfungsfunktion gehen auf Ohmschen Verlust, Querverluste und Skineffekt zurück?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Lösung anhand &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Bei einer Zweidrahtleitung ist der Einfluss der Längs&amp;amp;ndash; und der Querverluste signifikant größer als bei einem Koaxialkabel.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie ausgehend von der bisherigen Einstellung den Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. Was erkennt man anhand von  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Bei festem }k_2\text {wird }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ immer größer und es ergibt sich für }k_3 = 1\text{ ein linearer Verlauf; }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ nimmt immer schneller ab;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Mit }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ nähert sich die Dämpfungsfunktion der Zweidrahtleitung der eines Koaxialkabels immer mehr an.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23836</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23836"/>
		<updated>2018-03-06T23:57:20Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Zum Kanaleinfluss  auf die binäre Nyquistentzerrung */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Channel Influence on the Binary Nyquistent Equalization===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Simplified block diagram of the optimal Nyquistent equalizer|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Going by the block diagram: Between the Dirac source and the decider are the frequency responses for the transmitter &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$,  Channel &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ and receiver &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet&lt;br /&gt;
*we neglect the influence of the transmitted pulse form &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; dirac shaped transmission signal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*presuppose a binary Nyquist system with cosine&amp;amp;ndash;roll-off around the Nyquistf requency $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ :  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This means: The [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|erste Nyquistkriterium]] is met&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Timely successive impulses do not disturb each other  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; there are no[[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Impulsinterferenzen]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Intersymbol Interference&#039;&#039;, ISI). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bei weißem Rauschen wird somit die Übertragungsqualität allein durch die Rauschleistung vor dem Empfänger bestimmt:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die kleinstmögliche Rauschleistung ergibt sich bei idealem Kanal &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ und rechteckfömigem $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ im Bereich $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;1&#039;&#039;&#039; ... &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; der zu bearbeitenden Aufgabe.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt. Die Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Aufgabenstellung und Lösung in Englisch. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;0&#039;&#039;&#039; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; zunächst auf $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ und anschließend auf $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$. Die Kabellänge sei jeweils $l_{\rm Blau}= 3\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, insbesondere die Funktionswerte $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ und $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Näherungsweise steigt die Dämpfungsfunktion mit }\sqrt{f}\text{ und der Betragsfrequenzgang fällt ähnlich einer Exponentialfunktion};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 39.2\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9951;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 86.0\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9768.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Für &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; gelte $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Blau} = 3\ \rm km$. Wie wird $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ von $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$ beeinflusst?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Entscheidend ist }\alpha_2\text{  (Skineffekt). Die Beiträge von } \alpha_0\text{  (Ohmsche Verluste) und }\alpha_1 \text{  (Querverluste) sind jeweils nur ca.  0.2 dB.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie zusätzlich &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Rot} = 3\ \rm km$. Welcher Wert ergibt sich für $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Bis zu welcher Länge $l_{\rm Rot}$ liegt die rote Dämfungsfunktion unter der blauen?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Für die rote Kurve gilt:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 262.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. Obige Bedingung wird erfüllt für }l_{\rm Rot} = 0.95\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = ??? {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Conversion of Red}$. Es gelte $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie die dargestellten Funktionsverläufe für $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Sehr gute Approximation der Zweidrahtleitung durch den blauen Parametersatz, sowohl bezüglich }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{ als auch }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Welche Anteile der Dämpfungsfunktion gehen auf Ohmschen Verlust, Querverluste und Skineffekt zurück?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Lösung anhand &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Bei einer Zweidrahtleitung ist der Einfluss der Längs&amp;amp;ndash; und der Querverluste signifikant größer als bei einem Koaxialkabel.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie ausgehend von der bisherigen Einstellung den Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. Was erkennt man anhand von  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Bei festem }k_2\text {wird }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ immer größer und es ergibt sich für }k_3 = 1\text{ ein linearer Verlauf; }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ nimmt immer schneller ab;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Mit }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ nähert sich die Dämpfungsfunktion der Zweidrahtleitung der eines Koaxialkabels immer mehr an.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23835</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23835"/>
		<updated>2018-03-06T22:55:59Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Umrechnung zwischen $k$– und $\alpha$– Parametern */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Conversion Between $k$ and $\alpha$ parameters===&lt;br /&gt;
The $k$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters of the attenuation factor  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ can be converted into corresponding $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;parameters &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
As a criterion of this conversion, we assume that the quadratic deviation of these two functions is minimal within a bandwidth $B$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
It is obvious that $α_0 = k_1$. The parameters $α_1$ and $α_2$ are dependent on the underlying bandwidth $B$ and are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 1$ (frequency proportional attenuation factor) we get &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 = 0.5$  (Skin effect) we get the coefficients: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*For $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ we get a negative $\alpha_1$. Conversion is only possible for $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Zum Kanaleinfluss  auf die binäre Nyquistentzerrung===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Vereinfachtes Blockschaltbild des optimalen Nyquistentzerrers|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Wir gehen vom skizzierten Blockschaltbild aus. Zwischen der Diracquelle und dem Entscheider liegen die Frequenzgänge für Sender &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$,  Kanal &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ und Empfänger &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In diesem Applet &lt;br /&gt;
*vernachlässigen wir den Einfluss der Sendeimpulsform &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; diracförmiges Sendesignal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*setzen ein binäres Nyquistsystem mit Cosinus&amp;amp;ndash;Roll-off um die Nyquistfrequenz $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ voraus:  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Das bedeutet: Das [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|erste Nyquistkriterium]] wird erfüllt&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Zeitlich aufeinander folgende Impulse stören sich nicht gegenseitig  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; es gibt keine [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Impulsinterferenzen]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Intersymbol Interference&#039;&#039;, ISI). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bei weißem Rauschen wird somit die Übertragungsqualität allein durch die Rauschleistung vor dem Empfänger bestimmt:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die kleinstmögliche Rauschleistung ergibt sich bei idealem Kanal &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ und rechteckfömigem $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ im Bereich $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;1&#039;&#039;&#039; ... &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; der zu bearbeitenden Aufgabe.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt. Die Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Aufgabenstellung und Lösung in Englisch. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;0&#039;&#039;&#039; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; zunächst auf $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ und anschließend auf $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$. Die Kabellänge sei jeweils $l_{\rm Blau}= 3\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, insbesondere die Funktionswerte $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ und $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Näherungsweise steigt die Dämpfungsfunktion mit }\sqrt{f}\text{ und der Betragsfrequenzgang fällt ähnlich einer Exponentialfunktion};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 39.2\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9951;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 86.0\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9768.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Für &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; gelte $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Blau} = 3\ \rm km$. Wie wird $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ von $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$ beeinflusst?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Entscheidend ist }\alpha_2\text{  (Skineffekt). Die Beiträge von } \alpha_0\text{  (Ohmsche Verluste) und }\alpha_1 \text{  (Querverluste) sind jeweils nur ca.  0.2 dB.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie zusätzlich &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Rot} = 3\ \rm km$. Welcher Wert ergibt sich für $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Bis zu welcher Länge $l_{\rm Rot}$ liegt die rote Dämfungsfunktion unter der blauen?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Für die rote Kurve gilt:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 262.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. Obige Bedingung wird erfüllt für }l_{\rm Rot} = 0.95\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = ??? {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Conversion of Red}$. Es gelte $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie die dargestellten Funktionsverläufe für $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Sehr gute Approximation der Zweidrahtleitung durch den blauen Parametersatz, sowohl bezüglich }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{ als auch }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Welche Anteile der Dämpfungsfunktion gehen auf Ohmschen Verlust, Querverluste und Skineffekt zurück?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Lösung anhand &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Bei einer Zweidrahtleitung ist der Einfluss der Längs&amp;amp;ndash; und der Querverluste signifikant größer als bei einem Koaxialkabel.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie ausgehend von der bisherigen Einstellung den Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. Was erkennt man anhand von  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Bei festem }k_2\text {wird }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ immer größer und es ergibt sich für }k_3 = 1\text{ ein linearer Verlauf; }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ nimmt immer schneller ab;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Mit }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ nähert sich die Dämpfungsfunktion der Zweidrahtleitung der eines Koaxialkabels immer mehr an.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23834</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23834"/>
		<updated>2018-03-06T22:38:28Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Magnitude Frequency Response and Attenuation Function===&lt;br /&gt;
Following relationship exists between the magnitude frequency response and the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; makes it clear, that the considered LTI system is a cable(Ger: Kabel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K}(f)$ must be used in $\rm dB$ (decibel).&lt;br /&gt;
*For the first calculation rule, the damping function $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ must be used in $\rm Np$ (Neper).&lt;br /&gt;
* The following conversions apply:  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ or $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* This applet exclusively uses dB values.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the Attenuation Function of a Coaxial Cable of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*It is important to note the difference between $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ and the &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo; coefficient with other pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;units.&lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f)$ is directly proportional to the cable length $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ is referred to as the &amp;amp;bdquo;attenuation factor&amp;amp;rdquo; or &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometric attenuation&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency-independent component $α_0$ of the attenuation factor takes into account the Ohmic losses. &lt;br /&gt;
*The frequency proportional portion $α_1 · f$ of the attenuation factor is due to the derivation losses (&amp;amp;bdquo;crosswise loss&amp;amp;rdquo;) . &lt;br /&gt;
*the dominant portion $α_2$ goes back to [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]], which causes a lower current density inside the conductor compared to its surface. As a result, the resistance of an electric line increases with the square root of the frequency. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The constants for the &#039;&#039;standard coaxial cable&#039;&#039; with a 2.6 mm inner diameter and a 9.5 mm outer diameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; are:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The same applies to the &#039;&#039;coaxial coaxial cable&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; short &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
These values ​​can be calculated from the cables&#039; geometric dimensions and have been confirmed by measurements at the Fernmeldetechnisches Zentralamt in Darmstadt – see [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  They are valid for a temperature of 20 ° C (293 K) and frequencies greater than 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Attenuation Function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line===&lt;br /&gt;
According to [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; the attenuation function of a Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line of length $l$ is given as follows:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
This function is not directly interpretable, but is a phenomenological description.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;also provides the constants determined by measurement results:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From these numerical values one recognizes: &lt;br /&gt;
*The attenuation factor $α(f)$ and the attenuation function $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ depend significantly on the pipe diameter. The cables laid since 1994 with $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ and $d = 0.5$ mm have a 10% greater attenuation factor than the older lines with  $d = 0.4$ or $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*However, this smaller diameter, which is based on the manufacturing and installation costs, significantly reduces the range $l_{\rm max}$ of the transmission systems used on these lines, so that in the worst case scenario expensive intermediate generators have to be used. &lt;br /&gt;
*The current transmission methods for copper lines prove only a relatively narrow frequency band, for example $120\ \rm  kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]]  and  ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$ with [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]]. For $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ the attenuation factor of a 0.4 mm cable is around $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so that even with a cable length of $l = 4 \ \rm km$ the Attenuation does not exceed $80 \ \rm dB$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Umrechnung zwischen $k$– und $\alpha$– Parametern===&lt;br /&gt;
Es besteht die Möglichkeit, die  $k$&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter des  Dämpfungsmaßes &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ in entsprechende $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$ umzurechnen: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als Kriterium dieser Umrechnung gehen wir davon aus, dass die quadratische Abweichung dieser beiden Funktioneninnerhalb einer Bandbreite  $B$ minimal ist:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
Es ist offensichtlich, dass $α_0 = k_1$ gelten wird. Die Parameter $α_1$ und $α_2$ sind von der zugrunde gelegten Bandbreite $B$ abhängigund lauten:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*Für $k_3 = 1$ (frequenzproportionales Dämpfungsmaß) ergeben sich folgerichtig &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*Für $k_3 = 0.5$  (entsprechend Skineffekt) erhält man folgende Koeffizienten: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Für $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ ergibt sich ein negatives $\alpha_1$. Umrechnung ist nur für $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$ möglich.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Zum Kanaleinfluss  auf die binäre Nyquistentzerrung===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Vereinfachtes Blockschaltbild des optimalen Nyquistentzerrers|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Wir gehen vom skizzierten Blockschaltbild aus. Zwischen der Diracquelle und dem Entscheider liegen die Frequenzgänge für Sender &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$,  Kanal &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ und Empfänger &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In diesem Applet &lt;br /&gt;
*vernachlässigen wir den Einfluss der Sendeimpulsform &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; diracförmiges Sendesignal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*setzen ein binäres Nyquistsystem mit Cosinus&amp;amp;ndash;Roll-off um die Nyquistfrequenz $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ voraus:  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Das bedeutet: Das [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|erste Nyquistkriterium]] wird erfüllt&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Zeitlich aufeinander folgende Impulse stören sich nicht gegenseitig  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; es gibt keine [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Impulsinterferenzen]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Intersymbol Interference&#039;&#039;, ISI). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bei weißem Rauschen wird somit die Übertragungsqualität allein durch die Rauschleistung vor dem Empfänger bestimmt:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die kleinstmögliche Rauschleistung ergibt sich bei idealem Kanal &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ und rechteckfömigem $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ im Bereich $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;1&#039;&#039;&#039; ... &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; der zu bearbeitenden Aufgabe.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt. Die Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Aufgabenstellung und Lösung in Englisch. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;0&#039;&#039;&#039; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; zunächst auf $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ und anschließend auf $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$. Die Kabellänge sei jeweils $l_{\rm Blau}= 3\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, insbesondere die Funktionswerte $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ und $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Näherungsweise steigt die Dämpfungsfunktion mit }\sqrt{f}\text{ und der Betragsfrequenzgang fällt ähnlich einer Exponentialfunktion};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 39.2\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9951;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 86.0\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9768.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Für &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; gelte $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Blau} = 3\ \rm km$. Wie wird $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ von $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$ beeinflusst?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Entscheidend ist }\alpha_2\text{  (Skineffekt). Die Beiträge von } \alpha_0\text{  (Ohmsche Verluste) und }\alpha_1 \text{  (Querverluste) sind jeweils nur ca.  0.2 dB.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie zusätzlich &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Rot} = 3\ \rm km$. Welcher Wert ergibt sich für $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Bis zu welcher Länge $l_{\rm Rot}$ liegt die rote Dämfungsfunktion unter der blauen?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Für die rote Kurve gilt:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 262.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. Obige Bedingung wird erfüllt für }l_{\rm Rot} = 0.95\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = ??? {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Conversion of Red}$. Es gelte $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie die dargestellten Funktionsverläufe für $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Sehr gute Approximation der Zweidrahtleitung durch den blauen Parametersatz, sowohl bezüglich }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{ als auch }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Welche Anteile der Dämpfungsfunktion gehen auf Ohmschen Verlust, Querverluste und Skineffekt zurück?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Lösung anhand &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Bei einer Zweidrahtleitung ist der Einfluss der Längs&amp;amp;ndash; und der Querverluste signifikant größer als bei einem Koaxialkabel.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie ausgehend von der bisherigen Einstellung den Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. Was erkennt man anhand von  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Bei festem }k_2\text {wird }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ immer größer und es ergibt sich für }k_3 = 1\text{ ein linearer Verlauf; }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ nimmt immer schneller ab;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Mit }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ nähert sich die Dämpfungsfunktion der Zweidrahtleitung der eines Koaxialkabels immer mehr an.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23833</id>
		<title>Applets:Attenuation of Copper Cables</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&amp;diff=23833"/>
		<updated>2018-03-06T21:35:58Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: Die Seite wurde neu angelegt: „{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}  ==Programmbeschreibung== &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;  ==Theoretischer Hintergrund== &amp;lt;br&amp;gt; ===Betragsfrequenzgang und Dämpfungsfunktion=== Es besteht folg…“&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Programmbeschreibung==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretischer Hintergrund==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Betragsfrequenzgang und Dämpfungsfunktion===&lt;br /&gt;
Es besteht folgender Zusammenhang zwischen dem Betragsfrequenzgang und der Dämpfungsfunktion:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\left | H_{\rm K}(f)\right |=10^{-a_\text{K}(f)/20} = {\rm e}^{-a_\text{K, Np}(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Index &amp;amp;bdquo;K&amp;amp;rdquo; soll deutlich machen, dass das betrachtete LZI&amp;amp;ndash;System ein &#039;&#039;&#039;Ka&#039;&#039;&#039;abel ist.&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei der ersten Berechnungsvorschrift ist die Dämpfungsfunktion $a_\text{K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ (Dezibel) einzusetzen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Bei der zweiten Berechnungsvorschrift ist die Dämpfungsfunktion $a_\text{K, Np}(f)$ in $\rm Np$ (Neper) einzusetzen.&lt;br /&gt;
* Es gelten folgende Umrechnungen  $\rm 1 \ dB = 0.05 \cdot \ln (10) \ Np= 0.1151 \ Np$ bzw. $\rm 1 \ Np = 20 \cdot \lg (e) \ dB= 8.6859 \ dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
* In diesem Applet werden ausschließlich die dB&amp;amp;ndash;Werte verwendet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Dämpfungsfunktion eines Koaxialkabels===&lt;br /&gt;
Die Dämpfungsfunktion eines Koaxialkabels der Länge $l$ wird in [Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; wie folgt angegeben:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(\alpha_0+\alpha_1\cdot f+\alpha_2\cdot \sqrt{f}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Beachten Sie bitte den Unterschied zwischen der Dämpfungsfunktion $a_{\rm K}(f)$ in $\rm dB$ und den &amp;amp;bdquo;alpha&amp;amp;rdquo;&amp;amp;ndash;Koeffizienten mit anderen Pseudo&amp;amp;ndash;Einheiten.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Dämpfungsfunktion $a_{\rm K}(f)$ ist direkt proportional zur Kabellänge $l$; $a_{\rm K}(f)/l$ bezeichnet man als &amp;amp;bdquo;Dämpfungsmaß&amp;amp;rdquo; oder &amp;amp;bdquo;kilometrische Dämpfung&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
*Der frequenzunabhängige Anteil $α_0$ des Dämpfungsmaßes berücksichtigt die Ohmschen Verluste. &lt;br /&gt;
*Der frequenzproportionale Anteil $α_1 · f$ des Dämpfungsmaßes ist auf die Ableitungsverluste (&amp;amp;bdquo;Querverluste&amp;amp;rdquo;)  zurückzuführen. &lt;br /&gt;
*Der dominante Anteil $α_2$ geht auf den [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen#Frequenzgang_eines_Koaxialkabels|Skineffekt]] zurück, der bewirkt, dass bei höherfrequentem Wechselstrom die Stromdichte im Leiterinneren niedriger ist als an der Oberfläche. Dadurch steigt der Widerstandsbelag  einer elektrischen Leitung mit der Wurzel aus der Frequenz an. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Konstanten für das &#039;&#039;Normalkoaxialkabel&#039;&#039;  mit 2.6 mm Innendurchmesser und 9.5 mm Außendurchmesser &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; kurz &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039; lauten:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.014\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 = 0.0038\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 2.36\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Entsprechend gilt für das &#039;&#039;Kleinkoaxialkabel&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; kurz &#039;&#039;&#039;Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_0  = 0.068\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
 \alpha_1 = 0.0039\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot MHz} }\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}  \alpha_2 =5.2\, \frac{ {\rm dB} }{ {\rm km \cdot \sqrt{MHz} } }\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Werte können aus den geometrischen Abmessungen der Kabel berechnet werden und wurden durch Messungen am Fernmeldetechnischen Zentralamt in Darmstadt bestätigt – siehe[Wel77]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;Wel77&#039;&amp;gt;Wellhausen, H. W.: Dämpfung, Phase und Laufzeiten bei Weitverkehrs–Koaxialpaaren. Frequenz 31, S. 23-28, 1977.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; .  Sie gelten für eine Temperatur von 20°C (293 K) und Frequenzen größer als 200 kHz. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Dämpfungsfunktion einer Zweidrahtleitung===&lt;br /&gt;
Die Dämpfungsfunktion einer Zweidrahtleitung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line&#039;&#039;)der Länge $l$ wird in [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt; wie folgt angegeben:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a_{\rm K}(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot (f/{\rm MHz})^{k_3}) \cdot l.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Dieser Funktionsverlauf ist nicht direkt interpretierbar, sondern es handelt sich um eine phänomenologische Beschreibungsform.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls in [PW95]&amp;lt;ref name =&#039;PW95&#039;&amp;gt;Pollakowski, M.; Wellhausen, H.W.: Eigenschaften symmetrischer Ortsanschlusskabel im Frequenzbereich bis 30 MHz. Mitteilung aus dem Forschungs- und Technologiezentrum der Deutschen Telekom AG, Darmstadt, Verlag für Wissenschaft und Leben Georg Heidecker, 1995.&amp;lt;/ref&amp;gt;findet man die aus Messergebnissen ermittelten Konstanten:&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.35 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 7.9 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 15.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.62$, &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.40 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 5.1 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 14.3 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.59$,&lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.50 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 4.4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = 10.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.60$,  &lt;br /&gt;
* $d = 0.60 \ {\rm mm}$: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $k_1 = 3.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_2 = \hspace{0.25cm}9.2 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}k_3 = 0.61$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Man erkennt aus diesen Zahlenwerten: &lt;br /&gt;
*Dämpfungsmaß $α(f)$ und Dämpfungsfunktion $a_{\rm K}(f) = α(f) · l$ hängen signifikant vom Leitungsdurchmesser ab. Die seit 1994 verlegten Kabel  mit $d = 0.35 \ \rm (mm)$ und  $d = 0.5$ mm haben etwa ein um $10\%$ größeres Dämpfungsmaß als die älteren Leitungen mit  $d = 0.4$ bzw. $d= 0.6$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Dieser mit den Herstellungs– und Verlegungskosten begründete kleinere Durchmesser vermindert allerdings die Reichweite $l_{\rm max}$ der auf diesen Leitungen eingesetzten Übertragungssysteme signifikant, so dass im schlimmsten Fall teuere Zwischengeneratoren eingesetzt werden müssen. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die heute üblichen Übertragungsverfahren für Kupferleitungen belegen allerdings nur ein relativ schmales Frequenzband, zum Beispiel sind dies bei [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_ISDN|ISDN]] $120\ \rm  kHz$ und bei [[Beispiele_von_Nachrichtensystemen/Allgemeine_Beschreibung_von_DSL|DSL]] ca. $1100 \ \rm kHz$. Für $f = 1 \ \rm MHz$ beträgt das Dämpfungsmaß für ein 0.4 mm–Kabel etwa $20 \ \rm dB/km$, so dass selbst bei einer Kabellänge von $l = 4 \ \rm km$ der Dämpfungswert nicht über $80 \ \rm dB$ liegt. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Umrechnung zwischen $k$– und $\alpha$– Parametern===&lt;br /&gt;
Es besteht die Möglichkeit, die  $k$&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter des  Dämpfungsmaßes &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm I} (f)$ in entsprechende $\alpha$&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\alpha_{\rm II} (f)$ umzurechnen: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm I} (f) = k_1 + k_2  \cdot (f/f_0)^{k_3}\hspace{0.05cm}, \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm mit} \hspace{0.15cm} f_0 = 1\,{\rm MHz},$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_{\rm II} (f) = \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 \cdot f +  \alpha_2 \cdot \sqrt {f}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als Kriterium dieser Umrechnung gehen wir davon aus, dass die quadratische Abweichung dieser beiden Funktioneninnerhalb einer Bandbreite  $B$ minimal ist:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\int_{0}^{B} \left [ \alpha_{\rm I} (f) - \alpha_{\rm II} (f)\right ]^2 \hspace{0.1cm}{\rm  d}f \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Minimum} \hspace{0.05cm} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
Es ist offensichtlich, dass $α_0 = k_1$ gelten wird. Die Parameter $α_1$ und $α_2$ sind von der zugrunde gelegten Bandbreite $B$ abhängigund lauten:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\begin{align*}\alpha_1 &amp;amp; = 15 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -1}\cdot \frac{k_3 -0.5}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\\ \alpha_2 &amp;amp; = 10 \cdot (B/f_0)^{k_3 -0.5}\cdot \frac{1-k_3}{(k_3 + 1.5)(k_3 + 2)}\cdot  {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} .\end{align*}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*Für $k_3 = 1$ (frequenzproportionales Dämpfungsmaß) ergeben sich folgerichtig &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_1 =  {k_2}/{ {f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} .$&lt;br /&gt;
*Für $k_3 = 0.5$  (entsprechend Skineffekt) erhält man folgende Koeffizienten: &amp;amp;nbsp; $\alpha_0 = k_0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1 = 0\hspace{0.05cm} ,\hspace{0.2cm} \alpha_2 = {k_2}/{\sqrt{f_0} }\hspace{0.05cm}.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Für $k_3 &amp;lt; 0.5$ ergibt sich ein negatives $\alpha_1$. Umrechnung ist nur für $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$ möglich.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;Umrechnung in Gegenrichtung&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Fehlt noch&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Zum Kanaleinfluss  auf die binäre Nyquistentzerrung===  	&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:UMTS_Bild_1.png|right|frame|Vereinfachtes Blockschaltbild des optimalen Nyquistentzerrers|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Wir gehen vom skizzierten Blockschaltbild aus. Zwischen der Diracquelle und dem Entscheider liegen die Frequenzgänge für Sender &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f)$,  Kanal &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f)$ und Empfänger &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr;&amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm E}(f)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In diesem Applet &lt;br /&gt;
*vernachlässigen wir den Einfluss der Sendeimpulsform &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm S}(f) \equiv 1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; diracförmiges Sendesignal $s(t)$,&lt;br /&gt;
*setzen ein binäres Nyquistsystem mit Cosinus&amp;amp;ndash;Roll-off um die Nyquistfrequenz $f_{\rm Nyq} = [f_1 + f_2]/2 =1(2T)$ voraus:  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H_{\rm K}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f).$$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Das bedeutet: Das [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Eigenschaften_von_Nyquistsystemen#Erstes_Nyquistkriterium_im_Frequenzbereich|erste Nyquistkriterium]] wird erfüllt&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Zeitlich aufeinander folgende Impulse stören sich nicht gegenseitig  &amp;amp;nbsp; ⇒  &amp;amp;nbsp; es gibt keine [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Ursachen_und_Auswirkungen_von_Impulsinterferenzen|Impulsinterferenzen]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Intersymbol Interference&#039;&#039;, ISI). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Bei weißem Rauschen wird somit die Übertragungsqualität allein durch die Rauschleistung vor dem Empfänger bestimmt:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm N} =\frac{N_0}{2} \cdot \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} |H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 \ {\rm d}f\hspace{1cm}\text{mit}\hspace{1cm}|H_{\rm E}(f)|^2 = \frac{|H_{\rm CRO}(f)|^2}{|H_{\rm K}(f)|^2}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die kleinstmögliche Rauschleistung ergibt sich bei idealem Kanal &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1$ und rechteckfömigem $H_{\rm CRO}(f) \equiv 1$ im Bereich $|f| \le f_{\rm Nyq}$:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_\text{N, min} =  P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ] = N_0 \cdot f_{\rm Nyq} .$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Definitionen:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  &lt;br /&gt;
*Als Gütekriterium für ein gegebenes System verwenden wir den &#039;&#039;&#039;Gesamt&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K+R} =  \frac{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{gegebenes System:  Kanal  }H_{\rm K}(f), \ \text{Roll-off-Faktor  }r \big ]}{P_{\rm N} \ \big [\text{optimales System: }H_{\rm K}(f) \equiv 1, \ r=0 \big ]} =\frac{1}{f_{\rm Nyq} } \cdot \int_{0}^{+\infty} \vert H_{\rm E}(f) \vert^2 \ {\rm d}f \le 1.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Diese Systemgröße wird im Applet für beide Parametersätze in logarithmierter Form angegeben: &amp;amp;nbsp; $10 \cdot \lg \ \eta_\text{K+R} \le 0 \ \rm dB$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Durch Variation und Optimierung des Roll-off-Faktors $r$ erhält man den &#039;&#039;&#039;Kanal&amp;amp;ndash;Wirkungsgrad&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\eta_\text{K} = \min_{0 \le r \le 1} \ \eta_\text{K+R} .$$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Ab hier bis zum Beginn der Versuchsdurchführung ist alles Mist - eine Art Vorratsspeicher&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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*Bei UMTS ist das Empfangsfilter $H_{\rm E}f) = H_{\rm S}(f)$ an den Sender angepasst (&#039;&#039;Matched–Filter&#039;&#039;) und der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ erfüllt &lt;br /&gt;
:$$ H(f) = H_{\rm CRO}(f)  =   \left\{ \begin{array}{c}    1 \\  0 \\  \cos^2 \left( \frac {\pi \cdot (|f| - f_1)}{2 \cdot (f_2 - f_1)} \right)\end{array} \right.\quad&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{1}c} {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}} \\ {\rm{f\ddot{u}r}}\\  {\rm sonst }\hspace{0.05cm}.  \end{array}&lt;br /&gt;
\begin{array}{*{20}c} |f| \le f_1,  \\ |f| \ge f_2,\\   \\\end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die zugehörige Zeitfunktion lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$h(t) = h_{\rm CRO}(t) ={\rm si}(\pi \cdot t/ T_{\rm C}) \cdot \frac{\cos(r \cdot \pi t/T_{\rm C})}{1- (2r \cdot  t/T_{\rm C})^2}. $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
„CRO” steht hierbei für [[Lineare_zeitinvariante_Systeme/Einige_systemtheoretische_Tiefpassfunktionen#Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass|Cosinus–Rolloff]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Die Summe $f_1 + f_2$ ist gleich dem Kehrwert der Chipdauer $T_{\rm C} = 260 \ \rm ns$, also gleich $3.84 \ \rm MHz$. Der &#039;&#039;Rolloff–Faktor&#039;&#039; (wir bleiben bei der in $\rm LNTwww$ gewählten Bezeichnung $r$, im UMTS–Standard wird hierfür $\alpha$ verwendet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$r =  \frac{f_2 - f_1}{f_2 + f_1} $$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
wurde bei UMTS zu $r = 0.22$ festgelegt. Die beiden Eckfrequenzen sind somit&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_1 = {1}/(2 T_{\rm C}) \cdot (1-r) \approx 1.5\,{\rm MHz}, \hspace{0.2cm}&lt;br /&gt;
f_2 ={1}/(2 T_{\rm C})  \cdot (1+r) \approx 2.35\,{\rm MHz}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Die erforderliche Bandbreite beträgt $B = 2 · f_2 = 4.7 \ \rm MHz$. Für jeden UMTS–Kanal steht somit mit $5 \ \rm MHz$ ausreichend Bandbreite zur Verfügung.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID1547__Bei_T_4_3_S5b_v1.png|right|frame|Cosinus–Rolloff–Spektrum und Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;  Die Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*links das (normierte) Nyquistspektrum $H(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*rechts den zugehörigen Nyquistimpuls $h(t)$, dessen Nulldurchgänge im Abstand $T_{\rm C}$ äquidistant sind. &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear=all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Es ist zu beachten:}$&lt;br /&gt;
* Das Sendefilter $H_{\rm S}(f)$ und Matched–Filter $H_{\rm E}(f)$ sind jeweils  [[Digitalsignalübertragung/Optimierung_der_Basisbandübertragungssysteme#Wurzel.E2.80.93Nyquist.E2.80.93Systeme|Wurzel–Cosinus–Rolloff–förmig]] (englisch: &#039;&#039;Root Raised Cosine&#039;&#039;). Erst das Produkt $H(f) = H_{\rm S}(f) · H_{\rm E}(f)$ den Cosinus–Rolloff.&lt;br /&gt;
*Das bedeutet auch: Die Impulsantworten $h_{\rm S}(t)$ und $h_{\rm E}(t)$  erfüllen für sich allein die erste Nyquistbedingung nicht. Erst die Kombination aus beiden (im Zeitbereich die Faltung) führt zu den gewünschten äquidistanten Nulldurchgängen.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_k(f)=(k_1+k_2\cdot f^{k_3})\cdot l \hspace{0.5cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.5cm} \text{empirische Formel von Pollakowski &amp;amp;amp; Wellhausen.}$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Umrechnung der $k$-Parameter in die $a$-Parameter nach dem Kriterium, dass der mittlere quadratische Fehler innerhalb der Bandbreite $B$ minimal sein soll:&lt;br /&gt;
$$a_0=k_1 \text{(trivial)}, \quad a_1=15\cdot B^{k_3-1}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (k_3-0.5)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}, \quad a_2=10\cdot B^{k_3-0.5}\cdot \frac{k_2\cdot (1-k_3)}{(k_3+1.5)\cdot (k_3+2)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Kontrolle: $k_3=1 \Rightarrow a_1=k_2;\ a_2=0 \quad k_3=0.5 \Rightarrow a_1=0;\ a_2=k_2.$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der Gesamtfrequenzgang $H(f)$ ist ein  Cosinus-Rolloff-Tiefpass mit Rolloff-Faktor $r$, wobei stets $B=f_2$ und $r=\frac{f_2-f_1}{f_2+f_1}$ gelten soll.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ohne Berücksichtigung des Sendespektrums gilt $H(f)=H_K(f)\cdot H_E(f) \Rightarrow H_E(f)=\frac{H(f)}{H_K(f)}$.&lt;br /&gt;
*Der angegebene Integralwert $=\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} \left| H_E(f)\right|^2 \hspace{0.15cm} {\rm d}f$ ist ein Maß für die Rauschleistung des Systems, wenn der Kanal $H_K(f)$ durch das Empfangsfilter $H_E(f)$ in weiten Bereichen bis $f_1$ vollständig entzerrt  wird.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Beispiel}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*idealer Kanal ($a_0=a_1=a_2=0$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0$: Integralwert = $40$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
*schwach verzerrender Kanal ($a_2=5$ dB), $B=20$ MHz, $r=0.5$: Integralwert $\approx 505$ MHz.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{end}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_binomial_fertig.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;1&#039;&#039;&#039; ... &#039;&#039;&#039;6&#039;&#039;&#039; der zu bearbeitenden Aufgabe.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt. Die Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solution&amp;amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;
*Aufgabenstellung und Lösung in Englisch. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &#039;&#039;&#039;0&#039;&#039;&#039; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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In der folgenden Beschreibung bedeutet&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 1 (im Applet blau markiert),&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039;: &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verteilungsfunktion 2 (im Applet rot markiert).&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; zunächst auf $\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm)}$ und anschließend auf $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$. Die Kabellänge sei jeweils $l_{\rm Blau}= 3\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$, insbesondere die Funktionswerte $a_{\rm K}(f = f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ und $\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Näherungsweise steigt die Dämpfungsfunktion mit }\sqrt{f}\text{ und der Betragsfrequenzgang fällt ähnlich einer Exponentialfunktion};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (2.6/9.5 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 39.2\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9951;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm):     }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 86.0\text{ dB;}\hspace{0.5cm}\vert H_{\rm K}(f = 0) \vert = 0.9768.$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Für &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; gelte $\text{Coax (1.2/4.4 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Blau} = 3\ \rm km$. Wie wird $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star = 30 \ \rm MHz)$ von $\alpha_0$,  $\alpha_1$ und  $\alpha_2$ beeinflusst?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Entscheidend ist }\alpha_2\text{  (Skineffekt). Die Beiträge von } \alpha_0\text{  (Ohmsche Verluste) und }\alpha_1 \text{  (Querverluste) sind jeweils nur ca.  0.2 dB.}$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie zusätzlich &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und $l_{\rm Rot} = 3\ \rm km$. Welcher Wert ergibt sich für $a_{\rm K}(f =f_\star= 30 \ \rm MHz)$? &lt;br /&gt;
:Bis zu welcher Länge $l_{\rm Rot}$ liegt die rote Dämfungsfunktion unter der blauen?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Für die rote Kurve gilt:    }a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = 262.5 {\ \rm dB} \text{. Obige Bedingung wird erfüllt für }l_{\rm Rot} = 0.95\ {\rm km} \ \Rightarrow \ a_{\rm K}(f =  f_\star) = ??? {\ \rm dB}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Setzen Sie &#039;&#039;&#039;Rot&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Two&amp;amp;ndash;wired Line (0.5 mm)}$ und &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039; auf $\text{Conversion of Red}$. Es gelte $l_{\rm Rot} = l_{\rm Blau} = 1\ \rm km$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Betrachten und Interpretieren Sie die dargestellten Funktionsverläufe für $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Sehr gute Approximation der Zweidrahtleitung durch den blauen Parametersatz, sowohl bezüglich }a_{\rm K}(f) \text{ als auch }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten die Einstellungen von &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;. Welche Anteile der Dämpfungsfunktion gehen auf Ohmschen Verlust, Querverluste und Skineffekt zurück?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Lösung anhand &#039;&#039;&#039;Blau&#039;&#039;&#039;:   }\alpha_0(f =  f_\star= 30 \ {\rm MHz}) = 4 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_1(f =  f_\star) = 12.8 \ {\rm dB/km}, \hspace{0.2cm}\alpha_2(f =  f_\star) = 60.9 \ {\rm dB/km};$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Bei einer Zweidrahtleitung ist der Einfluss der Längs&amp;amp;ndash; und der Querverluste signifikant größer als bei einem Koaxialkabel.}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie ausgehend von der bisherigen Einstellung den Parameter $0.5 \le k_3 \le 1$. Was erkennt man anhand von  $a_{\rm K}(f)$ und  $\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Bei festem }k_2\text {wird }a_{\rm K}(f)\text{ immer größer und es ergibt sich für }k_3 = 1\text{ ein linearer Verlauf; }\vert H_{\rm K}(f) \vert \text{ nimmt immer schneller ab;}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.15cm}\text{Mit }k_3 \to 0.5\text{ nähert sich die Dämpfungsfunktion der Zweidrahtleitung der eines Koaxialkabels immer mehr an.}$&lt;br /&gt;
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==Vorgeschlagene Parametersätze== &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
(1)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=20$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=0$: &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Konstante Werte $a_K=20$ dB und $\left| H_K(f)\right|=0.1$. Nur Ohmsche Verluste werden berücksichtigt. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(2) Parameter wie (1), aber zusätzlich $a_1=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Linearer Anstieg von $a_K(f)$ zwischen $20$ dB und $50$ dB, $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ fällt beidseitig exponentiell ab.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(3)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber $a_0=0$, $a_1=0$, $a_2=1$ dB/(km &amp;amp;middot; MHz&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;1/2&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$a_K(f)$ und $\left| H_K(f)\right|$ werden ausschließlich durch den Skineffekt bestimmt. $a_K(f)$ ist proportional zu $f^{1/2}$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(4)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Es überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=13.05$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $13.04$ dB, ohne $a_1=12.92$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(5)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (1), aber nun mit der Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $1.2/4.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Kleinkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Wieder überwiegt der Skineffekt; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=28.66$ dB; ohne $a_0$: $28.59$ dB, ohne $a_1=28.48$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(6)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1 km$, $b=30$ MHz, $r=0$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Skineffekt ist auch hier dominant; $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=111.4$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $106.3$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(7)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (6), aber nun Halbierung der Kabellänge ($l=0.5$ km):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Auch die Dämpfungswerte werden halbiert: $a_k$ ($f=30$ MHz)$=55.7$ dB; ohne $k_1$: $53.2$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(8)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (7), dazu im blauen Parametersatz die umgerechneten Werte der Zweidrahtleitung:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Sehr gute Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.4$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(9)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (8), aber nun Approximation auf die Bandbreite $B=20$ MHz:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Noch bessere Approximation der $k$-Parameter durch die $a$-Parameter; Abweichung &amp;lt; $0.15$ dB.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(10)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur blauer Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0$, $a_0=a_1=a_2=0$; unten Darstellung $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Im gesamten Bereich ist $\left| H_K(f)\right|^2=1$; der Integralwert ist somit $2B=60$ (in MHz).&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(11)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (10), aber nun mit Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Koaxialkabel $2.6/9.5$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo; (Normalkoaxialkabel):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
$\left| H_K(f)\right|^2$ ist bei $f=1$ etwa $1$ und steigt zu den Rändern bis ca. $20$. Der Integralwert ist ca. $550$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(12)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (11), aber nun mit der deutlich größeren Kabellänge $l=5$ km:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Verstärkung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $3.35\cdot 10^6$ am Rand und Integralwert $2.5\cdot 10^7$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(13)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (12), aber nun mit Rolloff-Faktor $r=0.5$:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Deutliche Abschwächung des Effekts; Anstieg bis ca. $5.25\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.07\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(14)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (13), aber ohne Berücksichtigung der Ohmschen Verluste ($a_0=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Nahezu gleichbleibendes Ergebnis; Anstieg bis ca. $5.15\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $1.05\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(15)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter wie (14), aber auch ohne Berücksichtigung der Querverluste ($a_1=0$):&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenfalls kein großer Unterschied; Anstieg bis ca. $4.74\cdot 10^4$ ($f$ ca. $20$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $0.97\cdot 10^6$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
(16)&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;nbsp; Nur roter Parametersatz, $l=1$ km, $B=30$ MHz, $r=0.5$, Einstellung &amp;amp;bdquo;Zweidrahtleitung $0.4$ mm&amp;amp;ldquo;:&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Anstieg bis ca. $3\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz), Integralwert ca. $4.55\cdot 10^9$; ohne $k_1$: $0.93\cdot 10^8$ ($f$ ca. $23$ MHz) bzw. $1.41\cdot 10^9$.&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Quellenverzeichnis==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|daempfung}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=LNTwww:Applets&amp;diff=23832</id>
		<title>LNTwww:Applets</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=LNTwww:Applets&amp;diff=23832"/>
		<updated>2018-03-06T21:35:39Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Alle hier augelisteten Applets müssen noch in HTML5 umgeschrieben werden.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;In der jetzigen Form sind sie für viele Systeme (Smartphones, Apple, Linux, ...)  ungeeignet.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Sollten Sie im Bachelorstudiengang (BSEI) an der TU München studieren, so bieten wir Ihnen gerne eine entsprechende IP-Arbeit an.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=signald|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Signaldarstellung&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Dämpfung_von_Kupferkabeln]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Frequenzgang|Frequenzgang &amp;amp; Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Impulse und Spektren|Impulse &amp;amp; Spektren]] &lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Periodendauer|Periodendauer periodischer Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=lzs|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Lineare zeitinvariante Systeme&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Dämpfung_von_Kupferkabeln|Dämpfung von Kupferkabeln]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer Signale|Lineare Verzerrungen periodischer Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=stosi|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Stochastische Signaltheorie&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Gaußsche_Fehlerfunktionen|Gaußsche Fehlerfunktionen (Krücke)]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Gegenüberstellung_Binomial-_und_Poissonverteilung|Binomial&amp;amp;ndash; und Poissonverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=infot|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Informationstheorie&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=modula|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Modulationsverfahren&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=digsig|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Digitalsignalübertragung&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=mobcomm|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Mobile Kommunikation&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=chancod|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Kanalcodierung&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=nachrbeisp|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Beispiele von Nachrichtensysteme&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=englisch|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;English versions&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)|Binomial and Poisson Distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals|Linear Distortions of Periodic Signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Pulses &amp;amp; Spektra|Pulses &amp;amp; Spectra]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables]]&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=alte|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;alte Interaktionsmodule (SWF) - noch zu programmieren&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Signaldarstellung&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Zeigerdiagramm_–_Darstellung_des_analytischen_Signals_(Applet)|Zeigerdiagramm – Darstellung des analytischen Signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Ortskurve_–_Darstellung_des_äquivalenten_Tiefpass-Signals_(Applet)|Ortskurve – Darstellung des äquivalenten Tiefpass-Signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Abtastung|Abtastung analoger Signale &amp;amp; Signalrekonstruktion]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Diskrete_Fouriertransformation_(Applet)|Diskrete Fouriertransformation]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Graphische_Faltung|Zur Verdeutlichung der grafischen Faltung]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;LZI-Systeme&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Kabeldaempfung|Dämpfung von Kupferkabeln]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Bandbegrenzung|Einfluss einer Bandbegrenzung auf Sprache und Musik]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Laplace|Kausale Systeme &amp;amp;Laplacetransformation]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Verzerrungen|Lineare Verzerrungen periodischer Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Laufzeit|Phasenlaufzeit &amp;amp; Gruppenlaufzeit]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Zeitverhalten_von_Kupferkabeln|Zeitverhalten von Kupferkabeln]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Stochastische Signale&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Digitalfilter|Digitales Filter]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Markovketten|Ereigniswahrscheinlichkeit einer Markovkette erster Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Poisson_poisson|Ereigniswahrscheinlichkeiten der Poissonverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Binom_Binom|Ereigniswahrscheinlichkeiten der Binomialverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Gegenüberestellung_von_Binomialverteilung_vs._Poissonverteilung|Gegenüberstellung Binomialverteilung vs. Poissonverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:QFunction|Komplementäre Gaußsche Fehlerfunktionen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Korrelation|Korrelationskoeffizient &amp;amp; Regressionsgerade]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:2D_Gauss|WDF und VTF bei Gaußschen 2D-Zufallsgrößen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:WDF_VTF|WDF, VTF und Momente spezieller Verteilungen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Matched_Filter|Zur Verdeutlichung des Matched-Filters]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Würfel|Würfel - &#039;&#039;&#039;eigentlich ein Lernvideo&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Informationstheorie&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Quellenentropie|Entropien von Nachrichtenquellen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Lempel-Ziv-Welch|Lempel-Ziv-Welch-Algorithmen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Huffman_Shannon_Fano|Shannon-Fano- &amp;amp; Huffman-Codierung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Transinformation|Transinformation zwischen diskreten Zufallsgrößen]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Modulationsverfahren&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Besselfunktion|Besselfunktion erster Art und n-ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:DMT|Discrete Multitone Transmission]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Synchrondemodulator|Eigenschaften des Synchrondemodulators bei ZSB und ESB]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Frequency_Shift_Keying_%26_Continuous_Phase_Modulation|Frequency Shift Keying &amp;amp; Continuous Phase Modulation]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:OFDM|OFDM - Spektrum &amp;amp; Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:OVSF-Codes|OVSF-Codes]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:QPSK|QPSK und Offset&amp;amp;ndash;QPSK]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:DMT-Prinzip|Prinzip der Discrete Multitone Transmission]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Prinzip_der_Quadratur-Amplitudenmodulation_(Applet)|Prinzip der Quadratur&amp;amp;ndash;Amplitudenmodulation]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Walsh|Zur Erzeugung von Walsh-Funktionen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Rauschen|Rauschen bei AM und WM  - &#039;&#039;&#039;eigentlich ein Lernvideo&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Digitalsignalübertragung&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Augendiagramm|Augendiagramm &amp;amp; Augenöffnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Entscheidungsrückkopplung|Entscheidungsrückkopplung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Gram-Schmidt-Verfahren|Gram-Schmidt-Verfahren]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Lineare_Nyquistentzerrung|Lineare Nyquistentzerrung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:On-Off-Keying|Nichtkohärentes On-Off-Keying]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Entscheidungsregionen|Optimale Entscheidungsregionen]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:4B3T-Codes|Prinzip der 4B3T-Codierung]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Pseudoternaercodierung|Signale, AKF und LDS der Pseudoternaercodierung ]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Fehlerwahrscheinlichkeit|Symbolfehlerwahrscheinlichkeit von Digitalsystemen]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Viterbi|Viterbi-Empfänger für einen Vorläufer]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:2D_Laplace|Zweidimensionale Laplaceverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Mobile Kommunikation&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Frequenzselektivitaet|Auswirkungen des Mehrwegeempfangs]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Dopplereffekt|Zur Verdeutlichung des Dopplereffekts]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Beispiele von Nachrichtensystemen&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Sprachcodecs|Qualität verschiedener Sprachcodecs]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=LNTwww:Applets&amp;diff=23831</id>
		<title>LNTwww:Applets</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=LNTwww:Applets&amp;diff=23831"/>
		<updated>2018-03-06T21:35:10Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: &lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;Alle hier augelisteten Applets müssen noch in HTML5 umgeschrieben werden.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;In der jetzigen Form sind sie für viele Systeme (Smartphones, Apple, Linux, ...)  ungeeignet.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Sollten Sie im Bachelorstudiengang (BSEI) an der TU München studieren, so bieten wir Ihnen gerne eine entsprechende IP-Arbeit an.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=signald|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Signaldarstellung&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Dämpfung_von_Kupferkabeln]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Frequenzgang|Frequenzgang &amp;amp; Impulsantwort]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Impulse und Spektren|Impulse &amp;amp; Spektren]] &lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Periodendauer|Periodendauer periodischer Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=lzs|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Lineare zeitinvariante Systeme&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Dämpfung_von_Kupferkabeln|Dämpfung von Kupferkabeln]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer Signale|Lineare Verzerrungen periodischer Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=stosi|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Stochastische Signaltheorie&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Gaußsche_Fehlerfunktionen|Gaußsche Fehlerfunktionen (Krücke)]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Gegenüberstellung_Binomial-_und_Poissonverteilung|Binomial&amp;amp;ndash; und Poissonverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=infot|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Informationstheorie&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=modula|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Modulationsverfahren&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=digsig|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Digitalsignalübertragung&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=mobcomm|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Mobile Kommunikation&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=chancod|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Kanalcodierung&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=nachrbeisp|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;zum Buch &amp;amp;bdquo;Beispiele von Nachrichtensysteme&amp;amp;rdquo;&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
* …&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=englisch|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;English versions&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)|Binomial and Poisson Distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals|Linear Distortions of Periodic Signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Pulses &amp;amp; Spektra|Pulses &amp;amp; Spectra]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Attenuation_of_Copper_Cables&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{Collapse|ID=alte|TITEL=&#039;&#039;&#039;alte Interaktionsmodule (SWF) - noch zu programmieren&#039;&#039;&#039;|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Signaldarstellung&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Zeigerdiagramm_–_Darstellung_des_analytischen_Signals_(Applet)|Zeigerdiagramm – Darstellung des analytischen Signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Ortskurve_–_Darstellung_des_äquivalenten_Tiefpass-Signals_(Applet)|Ortskurve – Darstellung des äquivalenten Tiefpass-Signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Abtastung|Abtastung analoger Signale &amp;amp; Signalrekonstruktion]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Diskrete_Fouriertransformation_(Applet)|Diskrete Fouriertransformation]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Graphische_Faltung|Zur Verdeutlichung der grafischen Faltung]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;LZI-Systeme&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Kabeldaempfung|Dämpfung von Kupferkabeln]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Bandbegrenzung|Einfluss einer Bandbegrenzung auf Sprache und Musik]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Laplace|Kausale Systeme &amp;amp;Laplacetransformation]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Verzerrungen|Lineare Verzerrungen periodischer Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Laufzeit|Phasenlaufzeit &amp;amp; Gruppenlaufzeit]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Zeitverhalten_von_Kupferkabeln|Zeitverhalten von Kupferkabeln]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Stochastische Signale&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Digitalfilter|Digitales Filter]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Markovketten|Ereigniswahrscheinlichkeit einer Markovkette erster Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Poisson_poisson|Ereigniswahrscheinlichkeiten der Poissonverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Binom_Binom|Ereigniswahrscheinlichkeiten der Binomialverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Gegenüberestellung_von_Binomialverteilung_vs._Poissonverteilung|Gegenüberstellung Binomialverteilung vs. Poissonverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:QFunction|Komplementäre Gaußsche Fehlerfunktionen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Korrelation|Korrelationskoeffizient &amp;amp; Regressionsgerade]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:2D_Gauss|WDF und VTF bei Gaußschen 2D-Zufallsgrößen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:WDF_VTF|WDF, VTF und Momente spezieller Verteilungen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Matched_Filter|Zur Verdeutlichung des Matched-Filters]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Würfel|Würfel - &#039;&#039;&#039;eigentlich ein Lernvideo&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Informationstheorie&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Quellenentropie|Entropien von Nachrichtenquellen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Lempel-Ziv-Welch|Lempel-Ziv-Welch-Algorithmen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Huffman_Shannon_Fano|Shannon-Fano- &amp;amp; Huffman-Codierung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Transinformation|Transinformation zwischen diskreten Zufallsgrößen]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Modulationsverfahren&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Besselfunktion|Besselfunktion erster Art und n-ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:DMT|Discrete Multitone Transmission]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Synchrondemodulator|Eigenschaften des Synchrondemodulators bei ZSB und ESB]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Frequency_Shift_Keying_%26_Continuous_Phase_Modulation|Frequency Shift Keying &amp;amp; Continuous Phase Modulation]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:OFDM|OFDM - Spektrum &amp;amp; Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:OVSF-Codes|OVSF-Codes]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:QPSK|QPSK und Offset&amp;amp;ndash;QPSK]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:DMT-Prinzip|Prinzip der Discrete Multitone Transmission]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Prinzip_der_Quadratur-Amplitudenmodulation_(Applet)|Prinzip der Quadratur&amp;amp;ndash;Amplitudenmodulation]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Walsh|Zur Erzeugung von Walsh-Funktionen]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Rauschen|Rauschen bei AM und WM  - &#039;&#039;&#039;eigentlich ein Lernvideo&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Digitalsignalübertragung&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Augendiagramm|Augendiagramm &amp;amp; Augenöffnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Entscheidungsrückkopplung|Entscheidungsrückkopplung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Gram-Schmidt-Verfahren|Gram-Schmidt-Verfahren]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Lineare_Nyquistentzerrung|Lineare Nyquistentzerrung]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:On-Off-Keying|Nichtkohärentes On-Off-Keying]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Entscheidungsregionen|Optimale Entscheidungsregionen]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:4B3T-Codes|Prinzip der 4B3T-Codierung]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Pseudoternaercodierung|Signale, AKF und LDS der Pseudoternaercodierung ]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Fehlerwahrscheinlichkeit|Symbolfehlerwahrscheinlichkeit von Digitalsystemen]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:Viterbi|Viterbi-Empfänger für einen Vorläufer]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Applets:2D_Laplace|Zweidimensionale Laplaceverteilung]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Mobile Kommunikation&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Frequenzselektivitaet|Auswirkungen des Mehrwegeempfangs]]&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Dopplereffekt|Zur Verdeutlichung des Dopplereffekts]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&#039;&#039;&#039;zu &amp;amp;bdquo;Beispiele von Nachrichtensystemen&amp;amp;rdquo; und weitere Bücher:&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
* [[Applets:Sprachcodecs|Qualität verschiedener Sprachcodecs]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23771</id>
		<title>Applets:Linear Distortions of Periodic Signals</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23771"/>
		<updated>2018-02-28T21:55:34Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Zur Handhabung des Applets */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet illustrates the effects of linear distortions (attenuation distortions and phase distortions) with&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Meanings of the  used signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
*the input signal $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*the output signal $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the matched output signal $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the difference signal &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The next block in the model above is &#039;&#039;Matching&#039;&#039;: The output signal $y(t)$ is adjusted in amplitude and phase with equal quantities $k_{\rm M}$ and $\tau_{\rm M}$ for all frequencies which means that this is not a frequency-dependent equalization. Using the signal $z(t)$, one can differentiate between:&lt;br /&gt;
*attenuation distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant attenuation, as well as&lt;br /&gt;
*phase distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant delay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ is used to measure the strength of the linear distortion and is defined as:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale|&#039;&#039;&#039;German description&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Distortions refer to generally unwanted alterations of a message signal through a transmission system. Together with the strong stochastic effects (noise, crosstalk, etc.), they are a crucial limitation for the quality and rate of transmission.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Just as the intensity of noise can be assessed through &lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm N}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039; (SNR) $\rho_{\rm N}$, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distortions can be quantified through&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039; (SDR)&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signal \ Power}{\rm Distortion \ Power} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Linear and Nonlinear Distortions ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
A distinction is made between linear and nonlinear distortions:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nonlinear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;  occur, if at all times $t$ the nonlinear correlation $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ exists between the signal values $x = x(t)$ at the input and $y = y(t)$ at the output, whereby  $y = g(x)$ is defined as the system&#039;s nonlinear characteristic. By creating a cosine signal at the input with frequency $f_0$ the output signal includes  $f_0$, as well as  multiple harmonic waves. We conclude that new frequencies arise through nonlinear distortion.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|For clarification of nonlinear distortions |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Description of a linear system|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Linear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur,  if the transmission channel is characterized by a frequency response $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ Various frequencies are attenuated and delayed differently. Characteristic of this is that although frequencies can disappear (for example, through a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass, a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, or a band&amp;amp;ndash;pass),  no new frequencies can arise. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet only linear distortions are considered.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Description Forms for the Frequency Response ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The generally complex valued frequency response can be represented as follows: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following description variables: &lt;br /&gt;
*The absolute value $|H(f)|$ is called &#039;&#039;&#039;amplitude response&#039;&#039;&#039; and in logarithmic form &#039;&#039;&#039;attenuation function&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Decibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The &#039;&#039;&#039;phase function&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ indicates the negative frequency&amp;amp;ndash;dependent angle of $H(f)$ in the complex plane based on the real axis: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Low&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a low&amp;amp;ndash;Pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (LP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the RC low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is a first order low&amp;amp;ndash;pass. Consequently we can obtain &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_i/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== High&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable high&amp;amp;ndash;pass  (HP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the LC high pass is a first order high pass. Consequently we can obtain  &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f_i)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2\pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2\pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phase function $b(f)$ of high&amp;amp;ndash;pass and low&amp;amp;ndash;pass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
This graphic shows the phase function $b(f)$ with the cut&amp;amp;ndash;off frequency $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ and order $N=1$&lt;br /&gt;
* of a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (green curve),&lt;br /&gt;
* of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass (violet curve).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The input signal is sinusoidal with frequency $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$ whereby this signal is only turned on at $t=0$: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad\begin{array}{l} (t &amp;lt; 0), \\   (t&amp;gt;0). \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The left graphic shows the signal $x(t)$. The dashed line marks the first zero at  $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$. The other two graphics show the output signals $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ of  low&amp;amp;ndash;pass  and high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, whereby the change in amplitude was balanced in both cases.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Input signal $x(t)$  (enframed in blue) as well as output signals  $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; green and $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; magenta]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*The first zero of the signal $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ after the low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is delayed by $\tau_{\rm LP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ compared to the first zero of $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; marked with green arrow, whereby $b_{\rm LP}(f/f_{\rm S} = 0.9 \ {\rm rad})$ was considered.&lt;br /&gt;
* In contrast, the phase delay of the high&amp;amp;ndash;pass is negative:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx -0.085 \ {\rm ms}$  and therefore the first zero of $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ occurs before the dashed line.&lt;br /&gt;
*Following this transient response, in both cases the zero crossings again come in the raster of the period duration $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;Remark:&#039;&#039; The shown signals were created using the interactive applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Causal systems &amp;amp;ndash; Laplace transform]]. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Attenuation and Phase Distortions  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Requirements for a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
The adjacent figure shows&lt;br /&gt;
*the even attenuation function $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*the uneven  function curve $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
of a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel. One can see: &lt;br /&gt;
*In a distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free system the attenuation function $a(f)$ must be constant between$f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ around the carrier frequency $f_{\rm T}$, where the input signal  exists &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $X(f) \ne 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
*From the specified constant attenuation value $6 \ \rm dB$ follows for the amplitude response $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; the signal values of all frequencies are thus halved by the system &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;no attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*In addition, in such a system,  the phase function $b(f)$ between $f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ must increase linearly with the frequency. As a result, all frequency components are delayed by the same phase delay $τ$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  &#039;&#039;&#039;no phase distortion&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*The delay $τ$ is fixed by the slope of $b(f)$. The phase function $b(f) \equiv 0$ would result in a delay&amp;amp;ndash;less system  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The following summary considers that &amp;amp;ndash; in this applet &amp;amp;ndash; the input signal is always the sum of two harmonic oscillations,&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
and therefore the channel influence is fully described by the attenuation factors $\alpha_1$ and $\alpha_2$ as well as the phase delays  $\tau_1$ and $\tau_2$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Summary:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*A signal $y(t)$ is only &#039;&#039;&#039;distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free&#039;&#039;&#039; compared to $x(t)$ if $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$. If $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ and $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, then there are exclusively attenuation distortions. &lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Phase distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. If $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ and $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, then there are exclusively phase distortions.  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; We consider the parameters $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$ for the input signal $x(t)$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Calculate the signal&#039;s period duration $T_0$ and power $P_x$. Can you read the value for $P_x$ off the applet? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ greatest common divisor }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, if }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Vary $\varphi_2$ between $\pm 180^\circ$ while keeping all other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $T_0$ and $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vary $f_2$ between $0 \le f_2 \le 10\ {\rm kHz}$ while keeping all  other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes if }f_2 \ne 0\text{ and } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ changes if }f_2\text{is not a multiple of }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1\cos(\varphi_1) + A_2\cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin(\varphi_1) + A_2\sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{With } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Keeping the previous input signal $x(t)$, set following parameters&lt;br /&gt;
: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$, $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Are there linear distortions? Calculate the received power $P_y$ and the power $P_\varepsilon$ of the differential signal $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ is only attenuated and delayed, but not distorted.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Received power:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ is significantly larger:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; With the same settings as in Exercise (4), vary the matching parameters $k_{\rm M} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}$. How big is the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ is equal to }P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the ideal matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Neither attenuation nor phase distortion.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $(\rm SDR) \ \rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ and } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Attenuation distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.84} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.071 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Phase distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Are there attenuation distortions? Are there phase distortions? How can $y(t)$ be approximated?  &#039;&#039;Hint:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Both attenuation and phase distortions, because }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ and }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Using the parameters from  Exercise  (8),  calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio  $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Best possible adaptation:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.15 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.15 \approx 3.3}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Now we set $A_2 = 0$ and $A_1 =  1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. The channel is a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of  order  1&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $\underline{(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})}$. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Are there any attenuation  and/or phase distortions? Calculate the channel coefficients $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{At only one frequency there are neither attenuation nor phase distortions.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Attenuation factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phase factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; How do the channel parameters change when using a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 1  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ and $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125 = 0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and is retarded: The cosine turns into a sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences arise when using a  &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;High-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Since }f_1 = f_0\text{ the attenuation factor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ stays the same and }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ which means:}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is also only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and precedes it: The cosine turns into the Minus&amp;amp;ndash;sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences at the signal $y(t)$ can be observed between the Low-pass and the High-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$ when you start with the initial input signal according to Exercise (1) and continuously raise $f_2$ up to $10 \ \rm kHz$ ? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the Low-pass the second term is increasingly suppressed. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the High-pass however the second  term dominates. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ {\rm ms}) + x_2(t).$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Manual==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_verzerrungen.png|center]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter selection for input signal $x(t)$ per slider: Amplitude, frequency, phase values&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for channel parameters per slider: Low-pass or High-pass&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selction of channel parameters per slider: Dämpfungsfaktoren und Phasenlaufzeiten&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of channel parameters for High and Low pass: Order$n$, cut-off-frequency $f_0$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of matching parameters $k_{\rm M}$ and $\varphi_{\rm M}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selection of the signals to be displayed: $x(t)$,  $y(t)$, $z(t)$, $\varepsilon(t)$, $\varepsilon^2(t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphic display of the signals&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Enter the time $t_*$ for the numeric output&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; numeric output of the signal values $x(t_*)$,  $y(t_*)$, $z(t_*)$  and $\varepsilon(t_*)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numeric output of the main result $P_\varepsilon$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Save and reall parameters&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Exercises: Exercise selection, description and solution&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variation possibilities for the graphic display&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;functions &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (scale up), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (scale down) und $\rm o$ (reset)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Move with &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (section to the left, ordinate to the right),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&#039;&#039;&#039;Other options&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Hold shift and scroll:  Zoom in on/out of coordinate system,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Hold shift and left click: Move the coordinate system.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] ). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Once again: Open Applet in new Tab==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Applets|^Periodendauer^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23756</id>
		<title>Applets:Linear Distortions of Periodic Signals</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23756"/>
		<updated>2018-02-28T08:28:44Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Zur Handhabung des Applets */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet illustrates the effects of linear distortions (attenuation distortions and phase distortions) with&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Meanings of the  used signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
*the input signal $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*the output signal $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the matched output signal $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the difference signal &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The next block in the model above is &#039;&#039;Matching&#039;&#039;: The output signal $y(t)$ is adjusted in amplitude and phase with equal quantities $k_{\rm M}$ and $\tau_{\rm M}$ for all frequencies which means that this is not a frequency-dependent equalization. Using the signal $z(t)$, one can differentiate between:&lt;br /&gt;
*attenuation distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant attenuation, as well as&lt;br /&gt;
*phase distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant delay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ is used to measure the strength of the linear distortion and is defined as:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale|&#039;&#039;&#039;German description&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Distortions refer to generally unwanted alterations of a message signal through a transmission system. Together with the strong stochastic effects (noise, crosstalk, etc.), they are a crucial limitation for the quality and rate of transmission.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Just as the intensity of noise can be assessed through &lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm N}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039; (SNR) $\rho_{\rm N}$, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distortions can be quantified through&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039; (SDR)&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signal \ Power}{\rm Distortion \ Power} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Linear and Nonlinear Distortions ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
A distinction is made between linear and nonlinear distortions:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nonlinear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;  occur, if at all times $t$ the nonlinear correlation $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ exists between the signal values $x = x(t)$ at the input and $y = y(t)$ at the output, whereby  $y = g(x)$ is defined as the system&#039;s nonlinear characteristic. By creating a cosine signal at the input with frequency $f_0$ the output signal includes  $f_0$, as well as  multiple harmonic waves. We conclude that new frequencies arise through nonlinear distortion.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|For clarification of nonlinear distortions |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Description of a linear system|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Linear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur,  if the transmission channel is characterized by a frequency response $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ Various frequencies are attenuated and delayed differently. Characteristic of this is that although frequencies can disappear (for example, through a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass, a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, or a band&amp;amp;ndash;pass),  no new frequencies can arise. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet only linear distortions are considered.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Description Forms for the Frequency Response ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The generally complex valued frequency response can be represented as follows: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following description variables: &lt;br /&gt;
*The absolute value $|H(f)|$ is called &#039;&#039;&#039;amplitude response&#039;&#039;&#039; and in logarithmic form &#039;&#039;&#039;attenuation function&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Decibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The &#039;&#039;&#039;phase function&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ indicates the negative frequency&amp;amp;ndash;dependent angle of $H(f)$ in the complex plane based on the real axis: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Low&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a low&amp;amp;ndash;Pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (LP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the RC low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is a first order low&amp;amp;ndash;pass. Consequently we can obtain &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_i/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== High&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable high&amp;amp;ndash;pass  (HP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the LC high pass is a first order high pass. Consequently we can obtain  &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f_i)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2\pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2\pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phase function $b(f)$ of high&amp;amp;ndash;pass and low&amp;amp;ndash;pass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
This graphic shows the phase function $b(f)$ with the cut&amp;amp;ndash;off frequency $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ and order $N=1$&lt;br /&gt;
* of a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (green curve),&lt;br /&gt;
* of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass (violet curve).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The input signal is sinusoidal with frequency $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$ whereby this signal is only turned on at $t=0$: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad\begin{array}{l} (t &amp;lt; 0), \\   (t&amp;gt;0). \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The left graphic shows the signal $x(t)$. The dashed line marks the first zero at  $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$. The other two graphics show the output signals $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ of  low&amp;amp;ndash;pass  and high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, whereby the change in amplitude was balanced in both cases.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Input signal $x(t)$  (enframed in blue) as well as output signals  $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; green and $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; magenta]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*The first zero of the signal $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ after the low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is delayed by $\tau_{\rm LP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ compared to the first zero of $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; marked with green arrow, whereby $b_{\rm LP}(f/f_{\rm S} = 0.9 \ {\rm rad})$ was considered.&lt;br /&gt;
* In contrast, the phase delay of the high&amp;amp;ndash;pass is negative:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx -0.085 \ {\rm ms}$  and therefore the first zero of $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ occurs before the dashed line.&lt;br /&gt;
*Following this transient response, in both cases the zero crossings again come in the raster of the period duration $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;Remark:&#039;&#039; The shown signals were created using the interactive applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Causal systems &amp;amp;ndash; Laplace transform]]. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Attenuation and Phase Distortions  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Requirements for a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
The adjacent figure shows&lt;br /&gt;
*the even attenuation function $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*the uneven  function curve $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
of a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel. One can see: &lt;br /&gt;
*In a distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free system the attenuation function $a(f)$ must be constant between$f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ around the carrier frequency $f_{\rm T}$, where the input signal  exists &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $X(f) \ne 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
*From the specified constant attenuation value $6 \ \rm dB$ follows for the amplitude response $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; the signal values of all frequencies are thus halved by the system &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;no attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*In addition, in such a system,  the phase function $b(f)$ between $f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ must increase linearly with the frequency. As a result, all frequency components are delayed by the same phase delay $τ$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  &#039;&#039;&#039;no phase distortion&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*The delay $τ$ is fixed by the slope of $b(f)$. The phase function $b(f) \equiv 0$ would result in a delay&amp;amp;ndash;less system  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The following summary considers that &amp;amp;ndash; in this applet &amp;amp;ndash; the input signal is always the sum of two harmonic oscillations,&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
and therefore the channel influence is fully described by the attenuation factors $\alpha_1$ and $\alpha_2$ as well as the phase delays  $\tau_1$ and $\tau_2$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Summary:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*A signal $y(t)$ is only &#039;&#039;&#039;distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free&#039;&#039;&#039; compared to $x(t)$ if $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$. If $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ and $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, then there are exclusively attenuation distortions. &lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Phase distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. If $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ and $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, then there are exclusively phase distortions.  }}&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; We consider the parameters $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$ for the input signal $x(t)$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Calculate the signal&#039;s period duration $T_0$ and power $P_x$. Can you read the value for $P_x$ off the applet? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ greatest common divisor }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, if }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Vary $\varphi_2$ between $\pm 180^\circ$ while keeping all other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $T_0$ and $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vary $f_2$ between $0 \le f_2 \le 10\ {\rm kHz}$ while keeping all  other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes if }f_2 \ne 0\text{ and } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ changes if }f_2\text{is not a multiple of }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1\cos(\varphi_1) + A_2\cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin(\varphi_1) + A_2\sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{With } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Keeping the previous input signal $x(t)$, set following parameters&lt;br /&gt;
: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$, $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Are there linear distortions? Calculate the received power $P_y$ and the power $P_\varepsilon$ of the differential signal $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ is only attenuated and delayed, but not distorted.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Received power:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ is significantly larger:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; With the same settings as in Exercise (4), vary the matching parameters $k_{\rm M} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}$. How big is the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ is equal to }P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the ideal matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Neither attenuation nor phase distortion.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $(\rm SDR) \ \rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ and } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Attenuation distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.84} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.071 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Phase distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Are there attenuation distortions? Are there phase distortions? How can $y(t)$ be approximated?  &#039;&#039;Hint:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Both attenuation and phase distortions, because }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ and }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Using the parameters from  Exercise  (8),  calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio  $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Best possible adaptation:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.15 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.15 \approx 3.3}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Now we set $A_2 = 0$ and $A_1 =  1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. The channel is a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of  order  1&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $\underline{(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})}$. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Are there any attenuation  and/or phase distortions? Calculate the channel coefficients $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{At only one frequency there are neither attenuation nor phase distortions.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Attenuation factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phase factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; How do the channel parameters change when using a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 1  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ and $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125 = 0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and is retarded: The cosine turns into a sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences arise when using a  &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;High-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$? }}&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Since }f_1 = f_0\text{ the attenuation factor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ stays the same and }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ which means:}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is also only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and precedes it: The cosine turns into the Minus&amp;amp;ndash;sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences at the signal $y(t)$ can be observed between the Low-pass and the High-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$ when you start with the initial input signal according to Exercise (1) and continuously raise $f_2$ up to $10 \ \rm kHz$ ? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the Low-pass the second term is increasingly suppressed. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the High-pass however the second  term dominates. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ {\rm ms}) + x_2(t).$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_verzerrungen.png|center]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter selection for input signal $x(t)$ per slider: Amplitude, frequency, phase values&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for channel parameters per slider: Low-pass or High-pass&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selction of channel parameters per slider: Dämpfungsfaktoren und Phasenlaufzeiten&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter für Hoch&amp;amp;ndash; und Tiefpass: Ordnung $n$, Grenzfrequenz $f_0$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter $k_{\rm M}$ und $\varphi_{\rm M}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl der darzustellenden Signale: $x(t)$,  $y(t)$, $z(t)$, $\varepsilon(t)$, $\varepsilon^2(t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Signale&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Zeit $t_*$ für die Numerikausgabe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe der Signalwerte $x(t_*)$,  $y(t_*)$, $z(t_*)$  und $\varepsilon(t_*)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe des Hauptergebnisses $P_\varepsilon$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Abspeichern und Zurückholen von Parametersätzen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung: Aufgabenauswahl, Aufgabenstellung und Musterlösung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variationsmöglichkeiten für die grafische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;Funktionen &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern) und $\rm o$ (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Verschieben mit &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Ausschnitt nach links, Ordinate nach rechts),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] ). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Once again: Open Applet in new Tab==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
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[[Category:Applets|^Periodendauer^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale&amp;diff=23755</id>
		<title>Applets:Lineare Verzerrungen periodischer Signale</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale&amp;diff=23755"/>
		<updated>2018-02-28T08:28:33Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Handling the Applet */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Programmbeschreibung==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses Applet veranschaulicht die Auswirkungen von linearen Verzerrungen (Dämpfungsverzerrungen und Phasenverzerrungen) anhand &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Bedeutung der verwendeten Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
*des Eingangssignals $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Ausgangssignals $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Ausgangssignals $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Differenzsignals &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als nächster Block im obigen Modell folgt das &amp;amp;bdquo;Matching&amp;amp;rdquo;:  Dabei wird das Ausgangssignal $y(t)$ mit für alle Frequenzen einheitlichen Größen   $k_{\rm M}$ und $\tau_{\rm M}$ in Amplitude bzw. Phase angepasst. Dies ist also keine frequenzabhängige Entzerrung. Anhand des Signals $z(t)$ kann unterschieden werden &lt;br /&gt;
*zwischen einer Dämpfungsverzerrung und einer frequenzunabhängigen Dämpfung, sowie&lt;br /&gt;
*zwischen einer Phasenverzerrung und einer für alle Frequenzen gleichen Laufzeit.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als Maß für die Stärke der linearen Verzerrungen wird die Verzerrungsleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm D}$ verwendet. Für diese gilt:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals|&#039;&#039;&#039;Englische Beschreibung&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretischer Hintergrund==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Unter &#039;&#039;&#039;Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortions&#039;&#039;) versteht man allgemein die unerwünschte deterministische Veränderungen eines Nachrichtensignals durch ein Übertragungssystem. Sie sind bei vielen Nachrichtensystemen neben den stochastischen Störungen (Rauschen, Nebensprechen, etc.)  eine entscheidende Begrenzung für die Übertragungsqualität und die Übertragungsrate.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenso wie man die &amp;amp;bdquo;Stärke&amp;amp;rdquo; von Rauschen durch &lt;br /&gt;
*die Rauschleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm N}$ und&lt;br /&gt;
*das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Rauschleistungsverhältnis  (englisch: &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039;, SNR)  $\rho_{\rm N}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
bewertet, verwendet man zur Quantifizierung der Verzerrungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*die Verzerrungsleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortion  Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm D}$ und&lt;br /&gt;
*das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Verzerrungsleistungsverhältnis  (englisch: &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039;, SDR)  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signalleistung}{\rm Verzerrungsleistung} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Lineare und nichtlineare Verzerrungen ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Man unterscheidet zwischen linearen und nichtlinearen Verzerrungen:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nichtlineare Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; gibt es, wenn zu allen Zeiten $t$ zwischen dem Signalwert $x = x(t)$ am Eingang und dem Ausgangssignalwert $y = y(t)$ der nichtlineare Zusammenhang $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ besteht, wobei $y = g(x)$ die nichtlineare Kennlinie des Systems bezeichnet. Legt man an den Eingang ein Cosinussignal der Freuenz $f_0$ an, so beinhaltet das Ausgangssignal neben  $f_0$ auch Vielfache hiervon &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; so genannte &#039;&#039;Oberwellen&#039;&#039;. Durch nichtlineare Verzerrungen entstehen also neue Frequenzen.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|Zur Verdeutlichung  nichtlinearer Verzerrungen |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Beschreibung eines linearen Systems|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Lineare Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; entstehen dann, wenn der Übertragungskanal durch einen Frequenzgang $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ charakterisiert wird. Dann werden unterschiedliche Frequenzen unterschiedlich gedämpft und unterschiedlich verzögert. Charakteristisch hierfür ist, dass zwar Frequenzen verschwinden können (zum Beispiel durch einen Tiefpass, einen Hochpass oder einen Bandpass), dass aber keine neuen Frequenzen entstehen.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In diesem Applet werden nur lineare Verzerrungen betrachtet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Beschreibungsformen für den  Frequenzgang ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Der im Allgemeinen komplexe Frequenzgang kann auch wie folgt dargestellt werden: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus ergeben sich folgende Beschreibungsgrößen: &lt;br /&gt;
*Der Betrag $|H(f)|$ wird als &#039;&#039;&#039;Amplitudengang&#039;&#039;&#039; und in logarithmierter Form als &#039;&#039;&#039;Dämpfungsverlauf&#039;&#039;&#039; bezeichnet: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Dezibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der &#039;&#039;&#039;Phasengang&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ gibt den negativen frequenzabhängigen Winkel von $H(f)$ in der komplexen Ebene an, bezogen auf die reelle Achse: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Tiefpass &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung   ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Dämpfungsverlauf und Phasenverlauf eines Tiefpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Der Frequenzgang eines realisierbaren Tiefpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;Ordnung lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Ein einfacher RC&amp;amp;ndash;Tiefpass hat diesen Verlauf mit $N=1$. Damit erhält man &lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Phasenverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsfaktor für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Phasenlaufzeit für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Hochpass &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung   ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Dämpfungsverlauf und Phasenverlauf eines Hochpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Der Frequenzgang eines realisierbaren Hochpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;Ordnung lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Ein einfacher LC&amp;amp;ndash;Tiefpass hat diesen Verlauf mit $N=1$. Damit erhält man &lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Phasenverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsfaktor für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Phasenlaufzeit für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2 \pi  f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phasenfunktion $b(f)$ von Tiefpass und Hochpass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Die Grafik zeigt jeweils für die Grenzfrequenz $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ und die Ordnung $N=1$ die Phasenfunktion $b(f)$&lt;br /&gt;
* eines Tiefpasses (englisch: &#039;&#039;low&amp;amp;ndash;pass&#039;&#039;) als grüne Kurve, und&lt;br /&gt;
* eines Hochpasses (englisch: &#039;&#039;high&amp;amp;ndash;pass&#039;&#039;) als violette  Kurve.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Das Eingangssignal sei jeweils sinusförmig mit der Frequenz $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$, wobei dieses Signal erst zum Zeitpunkt $t=0$ eingeschaltet wird: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad \quad \begin{array}{*{20}c}   {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} }  \\   {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} }    \\ \end{array}\begin{array} \ t &amp;lt; 0, \\   t&amp;gt;0. \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der linken (blau umrandeten) Grafik ist dieses Signal $x(t)$ dargestellt. Der Zeitpunkt $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$ der ersten Nullstelle ist durch eine gestrichelte Linie markiert. Die beiden anderen Grafiken zeigen die Ausgangssignale $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ von Tiefpass und Hochpass, wobei in beiden Fällen die Amplitudenänderungen ausgeglichen wurden.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Eingangssignal $x(t)$ sowie Ausgangssignale  $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Nullstelle des Signals $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ nach dem Tiefpass kommt um $\tau_{\rm TP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ später als die erste Nullstelle von $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; markiert mit grünem Pfeil, wobei $b_{\rm TP}(f/f_{\rm S} )= 0.9 \ {\rm rad}$ berücksichtigt wurde.&lt;br /&gt;
* Dagegen ist die Laufzeit des Hochpasses negativ:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.085 \ {\rm ms}$ und die erste Nullstelle von $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ kommt deshalb vor der weißen Markierung.&lt;br /&gt;
*Nach diesem Einschwingvorgang kommen in beiden Fällen die Nulldurchgänge wieder im Raster der Periodendauer  $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;Anmerkung:&#039;&#039; Die gezeigten Signalverläufe wurden mit dem intereaktiven Applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Kausale Systeme &amp;amp;ndash; Laplacetransformation]] erstellt. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Dämpfungsverzerrungen und  Phasenverzerrungen  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Voraussetzung für einen nichtverzerrenden Kanal|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Die nebenstehende Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*den geraden Dämpfungsverlauf $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*den ungeraden Phasenverlauf $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
eines verzerrungsfreien Systems. Man erkennt: &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei einem verzerrungsfreien Systems muss in einem Bereich von $f_{\rm U}$ bis $f_{\rm O}$ um die Trägerfrequenz $f_{\rm T}$, in dem das Signal $x(t)$ Anteile besitzt, die  Dämpfungsfunktion $a(f)$ konstant sein. &lt;br /&gt;
*Aus dem angegebenen konstanten Dämpfungswert $6 \ \rm dB$ folgt für den Amplitudengang $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; die Signalwerte aller Frequenzen werden somit durch das System halbiert &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; keine Dämpfungsverzerrungen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Zusätzlich muss bei einem solchen Systems der Phasenverlauf $b(f)$ zwischen $f_{\rm U}$ und $f_{\rm O}$ linear mit der Frequenz ansteigen. Dies hat zur Folge, dass alle Frequenzanteile um die gleiche Phasenlaufzeit $τ$ verzögert werden &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  keine Phasenverzerrungen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Verzögerung $τ$ liegt durch die Steigung von $b(f)$ fest. Mit $b(f) = 0$ würde sich ein laufzeitfreies System ergeben  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die folgende Zusammenfassung berücksichtigt, dass in diesem Applet das Einganssignal stets die Summe zweier harmonischer Schwingungen  ist:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right).$$&lt;br /&gt;
Damit wird der Kanaleinfluss durch die Dämpfungsfaktoren $\alpha_1$ und $\alpha_2$ sowie die Phasenlaufzeiten  $\tau_1$ und $\tau_2$ vollständig beschrieben:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*Ein Signal $y(t)$ ist gegenüber dem Eingang $x(t)$ nur dann unverzerrt, wenn $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; und &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ gilt &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* Dämpfungsverzerrungen ergeben sich, falls  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ ist . Ist $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ und $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, so liegen ausschließlich Dämpfungsverzerrungen vor. &lt;br /&gt;
* Phasenverzerrungen gibt es für  $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. Ist $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ und $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, so liegen ausschließlich Phasenverzerrungen vor. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Aufgabennummer.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt.&lt;br /&gt;
*Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für das Eingangssignal $x(t)$ gelte $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Wie groß ist die Periodendauer $T_0$? Welche Leistung $P_x$ weist dieses Signal auf? Wo kann man diesen Wert im Programm ablesen? }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ größter gemeinsamer Teiler }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, wenn }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Phase $\varphi_2$ im gesamten möglichen Bereich $\pm 180^\circ$. Wie ändern sich $T_0$ und $P_x$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Keine Veränderungen:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Frequenz $f_2$ im Bereich $0 \le f_2 \le 5\ {\rm kHz}$. Wie ändert sich die Signalleistung $P_x$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Keine Veränderungen, falls }f_2 \ne 0\text{ und } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ ändert sich, falls }f_2\text{ kein Vielfaches von }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Falls }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}\text{Allgemeine Formel noch überprüfen}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Falls }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1 \cdot \cos(\varphi_1) + A_2 \cdot \cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin \cdot (\varphi_1) + A_2 \cdot \sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.  Mit } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgehend vom bisherigen Eingangssignal $x(t)$ gelte für den Kanal: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Zudem sei  $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Gibt es lineare Verzerrungen? Wie groß ist die Empfangsleistung $P_y$ und die Leistung $P_\varepsilon$ des Differenzsignals $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ ist unverzerrt, nur gedämpft und verzögert.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Empfangsleistung:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ ist deutlich größer:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Matchingparameter $k_{\rm M} \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}$. Wie groß ist die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ ist gleich der Leistung }P_\varepsilon  \text{ des Differenzsignals bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{weder Dämpfungs- noch Phasenverzerrungen.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für den Kanal gelte nun $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Wie groß sind nun die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$ und das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Verzerrungsverhäldnis $(\rm SDR)$ $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ und } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Nur Dämpfungsverzerrungen.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-zu-Verzerrung-Leistungsverhältnis}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für den Kanal gelte nun $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Wie groß sind nun $P_{\rm D}$ und $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.82} \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.072 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Nur Phasenverzerrungen.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-zu-Verzerrung-Leistungsverhältnis}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Die Kanalparameter seien nun $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Gibt es Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; und/oder Phasenverzerrungen? &lt;br /&gt;
:Wie kann man $y(t)$ annähern?  &#039;&#039;Hinweis:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Es gibt sowohlDämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; als auch Phasenverzerrungen, weil }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ und }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Es gilt }y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi  f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Parameter von &#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;.  Wie groß ist die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$ and das Signal-zu-Verzerrungsleistungsverhältnis $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Bestmögliche Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.156 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.156 \approx 3.2}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Nun gelte $A_2 = 0$ sowie $A_1 = 1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. Der Kanal sei ein &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Tiefpass erster Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Gibt es Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; und/oder Phasenverzerrungen? Wie groß sind die Kanalkoeffizienten $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Bei nur einer Frequenz gibt es weder Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; noch Phasenverzerrungen.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Dämpfungsfaktor für }f_1=f_0\text{ und }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phasenlaufzeit für}f_1=f_0\text{ und }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Wie ändern sich die Kanalparameter durch einen &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; gegenüber einem Tiefpass erster Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Es gilt }\hspace{0.15cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ und $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125  0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Das Signal }y(t)\text{  ist nur halb so groß wie }x(t)\text{ und läuft diesem nach: Aus dem Cosinusverlauf wird die Sinusfunktion}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Welche Unterschiede ergeben sich bei einem &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Hochpass zweiter Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; gegenüber einem Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Wegen }f_1 = f_0\text{ ergibt sich der gleiche Dämpfungsfaktor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ und  es gilt }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ Das heißt:}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Das Signal }y(t)\text{  ist auch hier nur halb so groß wie }x(t)\text{ und läuft diesem vor: Aus dem Cosinusverlauf wird die Minus&amp;amp;ndash;Sinusfunktion}$. &lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Welche Unterschiede erkennen Sie am Signalverlauf $y(t)$ zwischen dem Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung und dem Hochpass zweiter Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$, wenn Sie vom Eingangssignal gemäß&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; ausgehen und Sie die Frequenz $f_2$ kontinuierlich bis auf $10 \ \rm kHz$ erhöhen. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Nach dem Tiefpass  wird der zweite Anteil mehr und mehr unterdrückt. Für }f_2 =  10 \ \rm kHz\text{ gilt: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Nach dem Hochpass überwiegt dagegen der zweite Anteil. Für }f_2 =  10 \ \rm kHz\text{ gilt: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ \rm ms) + x_2(t).$ .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_verzerrungen.png|center]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe für das Eingangssignal $x(t)$ per Slider: Amplituden, Frequenzen, Phasenwerte&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für die Kanalparameter: per Slider, Tiefpass oder Hochpass&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter per Slider: Dämpfungsfaktoren und Phasenlaufzeiten&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter für Hoch&amp;amp;ndash; und Tiefpass: Ordnung $n$, Grenzfrequenz $f_0$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter $k_{\rm M}$ und $\varphi_{\rm M}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl der darzustellenden Signale: $x(t)$,  $y(t)$, $z(t)$, $\varepsilon(t)$, $\varepsilon^2(t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Signale&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Zeit $t_*$ für die Numerikausgabe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe der Signalwerte $x(t_*)$,  $y(t_*)$, $z(t_*)$  und $\varepsilon(t_*)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe des Hauptergebnisses $P_\varepsilon$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Abspeichern und Zurückholen von Parametersätzen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung: Aufgabenauswahl, Aufgabenstellung und Musterlösung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variationsmöglichkeiten für die grafische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;Funktionen &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern) und $\rm o$ (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Verschieben mit &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Ausschnitt nach links, Ordinate nach rechts),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2005 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] im Rahmen ihrer Diplomarbeit mit &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde dieses Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] im Rahmen seiner Bachelorarbeit (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) neu gestaltet und erweitert.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Applets|^Verzerrungen^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale&amp;diff=23754</id>
		<title>Applets:Lineare Verzerrungen periodischer Signale</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale&amp;diff=23754"/>
		<updated>2018-02-28T04:02:10Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Zur Handhabung des Applets */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Programmbeschreibung==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses Applet veranschaulicht die Auswirkungen von linearen Verzerrungen (Dämpfungsverzerrungen und Phasenverzerrungen) anhand &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Bedeutung der verwendeten Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
*des Eingangssignals $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Ausgangssignals $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Ausgangssignals $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Differenzsignals &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als nächster Block im obigen Modell folgt das &amp;amp;bdquo;Matching&amp;amp;rdquo;:  Dabei wird das Ausgangssignal $y(t)$ mit für alle Frequenzen einheitlichen Größen   $k_{\rm M}$ und $\tau_{\rm M}$ in Amplitude bzw. Phase angepasst. Dies ist also keine frequenzabhängige Entzerrung. Anhand des Signals $z(t)$ kann unterschieden werden &lt;br /&gt;
*zwischen einer Dämpfungsverzerrung und einer frequenzunabhängigen Dämpfung, sowie&lt;br /&gt;
*zwischen einer Phasenverzerrung und einer für alle Frequenzen gleichen Laufzeit.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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Als Maß für die Stärke der linearen Verzerrungen wird die Verzerrungsleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm D}$ verwendet. Für diese gilt:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals|&#039;&#039;&#039;Englische Beschreibung&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
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==Theoretischer Hintergrund==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Unter &#039;&#039;&#039;Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortions&#039;&#039;) versteht man allgemein die unerwünschte deterministische Veränderungen eines Nachrichtensignals durch ein Übertragungssystem. Sie sind bei vielen Nachrichtensystemen neben den stochastischen Störungen (Rauschen, Nebensprechen, etc.)  eine entscheidende Begrenzung für die Übertragungsqualität und die Übertragungsrate.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenso wie man die &amp;amp;bdquo;Stärke&amp;amp;rdquo; von Rauschen durch &lt;br /&gt;
*die Rauschleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm N}$ und&lt;br /&gt;
*das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Rauschleistungsverhältnis  (englisch: &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039;, SNR)  $\rho_{\rm N}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
bewertet, verwendet man zur Quantifizierung der Verzerrungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*die Verzerrungsleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortion  Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm D}$ und&lt;br /&gt;
*das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Verzerrungsleistungsverhältnis  (englisch: &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039;, SDR)  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signalleistung}{\rm Verzerrungsleistung} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
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=== Lineare und nichtlineare Verzerrungen ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Man unterscheidet zwischen linearen und nichtlinearen Verzerrungen:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nichtlineare Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; gibt es, wenn zu allen Zeiten $t$ zwischen dem Signalwert $x = x(t)$ am Eingang und dem Ausgangssignalwert $y = y(t)$ der nichtlineare Zusammenhang $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ besteht, wobei $y = g(x)$ die nichtlineare Kennlinie des Systems bezeichnet. Legt man an den Eingang ein Cosinussignal der Freuenz $f_0$ an, so beinhaltet das Ausgangssignal neben  $f_0$ auch Vielfache hiervon &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; so genannte &#039;&#039;Oberwellen&#039;&#039;. Durch nichtlineare Verzerrungen entstehen also neue Frequenzen.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|Zur Verdeutlichung  nichtlinearer Verzerrungen |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Beschreibung eines linearen Systems|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Lineare Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; entstehen dann, wenn der Übertragungskanal durch einen Frequenzgang $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ charakterisiert wird. Dann werden unterschiedliche Frequenzen unterschiedlich gedämpft und unterschiedlich verzögert. Charakteristisch hierfür ist, dass zwar Frequenzen verschwinden können (zum Beispiel durch einen Tiefpass, einen Hochpass oder einen Bandpass), dass aber keine neuen Frequenzen entstehen.&lt;br /&gt;
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In diesem Applet werden nur lineare Verzerrungen betrachtet.&lt;br /&gt;
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=== Beschreibungsformen für den  Frequenzgang ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Der im Allgemeinen komplexe Frequenzgang kann auch wie folgt dargestellt werden: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus ergeben sich folgende Beschreibungsgrößen: &lt;br /&gt;
*Der Betrag $|H(f)|$ wird als &#039;&#039;&#039;Amplitudengang&#039;&#039;&#039; und in logarithmierter Form als &#039;&#039;&#039;Dämpfungsverlauf&#039;&#039;&#039; bezeichnet: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Dezibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der &#039;&#039;&#039;Phasengang&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ gibt den negativen frequenzabhängigen Winkel von $H(f)$ in der komplexen Ebene an, bezogen auf die reelle Achse: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Tiefpass &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung   ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Dämpfungsverlauf und Phasenverlauf eines Tiefpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Der Frequenzgang eines realisierbaren Tiefpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;Ordnung lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Ein einfacher RC&amp;amp;ndash;Tiefpass hat diesen Verlauf mit $N=1$. Damit erhält man &lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Phasenverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsfaktor für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Phasenlaufzeit für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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=== Hochpass &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung   ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Dämpfungsverlauf und Phasenverlauf eines Hochpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Der Frequenzgang eines realisierbaren Hochpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;Ordnung lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Ein einfacher LC&amp;amp;ndash;Tiefpass hat diesen Verlauf mit $N=1$. Damit erhält man &lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Phasenverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsfaktor für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Phasenlaufzeit für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2 \pi  f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phasenfunktion $b(f)$ von Tiefpass und Hochpass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Die Grafik zeigt jeweils für die Grenzfrequenz $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ und die Ordnung $N=1$ die Phasenfunktion $b(f)$&lt;br /&gt;
* eines Tiefpasses (englisch: &#039;&#039;low&amp;amp;ndash;pass&#039;&#039;) als grüne Kurve, und&lt;br /&gt;
* eines Hochpasses (englisch: &#039;&#039;high&amp;amp;ndash;pass&#039;&#039;) als violette  Kurve.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Das Eingangssignal sei jeweils sinusförmig mit der Frequenz $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$, wobei dieses Signal erst zum Zeitpunkt $t=0$ eingeschaltet wird: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad \quad \begin{array}{*{20}c}   {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} }  \\   {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} }    \\ \end{array}\begin{array} \ t &amp;lt; 0, \\   t&amp;gt;0. \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der linken (blau umrandeten) Grafik ist dieses Signal $x(t)$ dargestellt. Der Zeitpunkt $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$ der ersten Nullstelle ist durch eine gestrichelte Linie markiert. Die beiden anderen Grafiken zeigen die Ausgangssignale $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ von Tiefpass und Hochpass, wobei in beiden Fällen die Amplitudenänderungen ausgeglichen wurden.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Eingangssignal $x(t)$ sowie Ausgangssignale  $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Nullstelle des Signals $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ nach dem Tiefpass kommt um $\tau_{\rm TP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ später als die erste Nullstelle von $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; markiert mit grünem Pfeil, wobei $b_{\rm TP}(f/f_{\rm S} )= 0.9 \ {\rm rad}$ berücksichtigt wurde.&lt;br /&gt;
* Dagegen ist die Laufzeit des Hochpasses negativ:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.085 \ {\rm ms}$ und die erste Nullstelle von $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ kommt deshalb vor der weißen Markierung.&lt;br /&gt;
*Nach diesem Einschwingvorgang kommen in beiden Fällen die Nulldurchgänge wieder im Raster der Periodendauer  $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;Anmerkung:&#039;&#039; Die gezeigten Signalverläufe wurden mit dem intereaktiven Applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Kausale Systeme &amp;amp;ndash; Laplacetransformation]] erstellt. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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=== Dämpfungsverzerrungen und  Phasenverzerrungen  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Voraussetzung für einen nichtverzerrenden Kanal|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Die nebenstehende Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*den geraden Dämpfungsverlauf $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*den ungeraden Phasenverlauf $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
eines verzerrungsfreien Systems. Man erkennt: &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei einem verzerrungsfreien Systems muss in einem Bereich von $f_{\rm U}$ bis $f_{\rm O}$ um die Trägerfrequenz $f_{\rm T}$, in dem das Signal $x(t)$ Anteile besitzt, die  Dämpfungsfunktion $a(f)$ konstant sein. &lt;br /&gt;
*Aus dem angegebenen konstanten Dämpfungswert $6 \ \rm dB$ folgt für den Amplitudengang $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; die Signalwerte aller Frequenzen werden somit durch das System halbiert &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; keine Dämpfungsverzerrungen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Zusätzlich muss bei einem solchen Systems der Phasenverlauf $b(f)$ zwischen $f_{\rm U}$ und $f_{\rm O}$ linear mit der Frequenz ansteigen. Dies hat zur Folge, dass alle Frequenzanteile um die gleiche Phasenlaufzeit $τ$ verzögert werden &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  keine Phasenverzerrungen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Verzögerung $τ$ liegt durch die Steigung von $b(f)$ fest. Mit $b(f) = 0$ würde sich ein laufzeitfreies System ergeben  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
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Die folgende Zusammenfassung berücksichtigt, dass in diesem Applet das Einganssignal stets die Summe zweier harmonischer Schwingungen  ist:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right).$$&lt;br /&gt;
Damit wird der Kanaleinfluss durch die Dämpfungsfaktoren $\alpha_1$ und $\alpha_2$ sowie die Phasenlaufzeiten  $\tau_1$ und $\tau_2$ vollständig beschrieben:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*Ein Signal $y(t)$ ist gegenüber dem Eingang $x(t)$ nur dann unverzerrt, wenn $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; und &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ gilt &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* Dämpfungsverzerrungen ergeben sich, falls  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ ist . Ist $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ und $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, so liegen ausschließlich Dämpfungsverzerrungen vor. &lt;br /&gt;
* Phasenverzerrungen gibt es für  $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. Ist $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ und $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, so liegen ausschließlich Phasenverzerrungen vor. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Aufgabennummer.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt.&lt;br /&gt;
*Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die Nummer &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für das Eingangssignal $x(t)$ gelte $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Wie groß ist die Periodendauer $T_0$? Welche Leistung $P_x$ weist dieses Signal auf? Wo kann man diesen Wert im Programm ablesen? }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ größter gemeinsamer Teiler }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, wenn }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Phase $\varphi_2$ im gesamten möglichen Bereich $\pm 180^\circ$. Wie ändern sich $T_0$ und $P_x$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Keine Veränderungen:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Frequenz $f_2$ im Bereich $0 \le f_2 \le 5\ {\rm kHz}$. Wie ändert sich die Signalleistung $P_x$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Keine Veränderungen, falls }f_2 \ne 0\text{ und } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ ändert sich, falls }f_2\text{ kein Vielfaches von }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Falls }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}\text{Allgemeine Formel noch überprüfen}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Falls }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1 \cdot \cos(\varphi_1) + A_2 \cdot \cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin \cdot (\varphi_1) + A_2 \cdot \sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.  Mit } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgehend vom bisherigen Eingangssignal $x(t)$ gelte für den Kanal: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Zudem sei  $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Gibt es lineare Verzerrungen? Wie groß ist die Empfangsleistung $P_y$ und die Leistung $P_\varepsilon$ des Differenzsignals $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ ist unverzerrt, nur gedämpft und verzögert.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Empfangsleistung:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ ist deutlich größer:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Matchingparameter $k_{\rm M} \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}$. Wie groß ist die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ ist gleich der Leistung }P_\varepsilon  \text{ des Differenzsignals bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{weder Dämpfungs- noch Phasenverzerrungen.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für den Kanal gelte nun $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Wie groß sind nun die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$ und das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Verzerrungsverhäldnis $(\rm SDR)$ $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ und } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Nur Dämpfungsverzerrungen.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-zu-Verzerrung-Leistungsverhältnis}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für den Kanal gelte nun $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Wie groß sind nun $P_{\rm D}$ und $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.82} \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.072 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Nur Phasenverzerrungen.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-zu-Verzerrung-Leistungsverhältnis}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Die Kanalparameter seien nun $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Gibt es Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; und/oder Phasenverzerrungen? &lt;br /&gt;
:Wie kann man $y(t)$ annähern?  &#039;&#039;Hinweis:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Es gibt sowohlDämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; als auch Phasenverzerrungen, weil }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ und }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Es gilt }y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi  f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Parameter von &#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;.  Wie groß ist die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$ and das Signal-zu-Verzerrungsleistungsverhältnis $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Bestmögliche Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.156 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.156 \approx 3.2}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Nun gelte $A_2 = 0$ sowie $A_1 = 1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. Der Kanal sei ein &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Tiefpass erster Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Gibt es Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; und/oder Phasenverzerrungen? Wie groß sind die Kanalkoeffizienten $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Bei nur einer Frequenz gibt es weder Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; noch Phasenverzerrungen.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Dämpfungsfaktor für }f_1=f_0\text{ und }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phasenlaufzeit für}f_1=f_0\text{ und }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Wie ändern sich die Kanalparameter durch einen &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; gegenüber einem Tiefpass erster Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Es gilt }\hspace{0.15cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ und $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125  0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Das Signal }y(t)\text{  ist nur halb so groß wie }x(t)\text{ und läuft diesem nach: Aus dem Cosinusverlauf wird die Sinusfunktion}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Welche Unterschiede ergeben sich bei einem &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Hochpass zweiter Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; gegenüber einem Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Wegen }f_1 = f_0\text{ ergibt sich der gleiche Dämpfungsfaktor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ und  es gilt }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ Das heißt:}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Das Signal }y(t)\text{  ist auch hier nur halb so groß wie }x(t)\text{ und läuft diesem vor: Aus dem Cosinusverlauf wird die Minus&amp;amp;ndash;Sinusfunktion}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Welche Unterschiede erkennen Sie am Signalverlauf $y(t)$ zwischen dem Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung und dem Hochpass zweiter Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$, wenn Sie vom Eingangssignal gemäß&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; ausgehen und Sie die Frequenz $f_2$ kontinuierlich bis auf $10 \ \rm kHz$ erhöhen. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Nach dem Tiefpass  wird der zweite Anteil mehr und mehr unterdrückt. Für }f_2 =  10 \ \rm kHz\text{ gilt: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Nach dem Hochpass überwiegt dagegen der zweite Anteil. Für }f_2 =  10 \ \rm kHz\text{ gilt: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ \rm ms) + x_2(t).$ .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Handling the Applet==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_verzerrungen.png|center]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parameter selection for input signal $x(t)$ per slider: Amplitude, frequency, phase values&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Preselection for channel parameters per slider: Low-pass or High-pass&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Selction of channel parameters per slider: Dämpfungsfaktoren und Phasenlaufzeiten&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter für Hoch&amp;amp;ndash; und Tiefpass: Ordnung $n$, Grenzfrequenz $f_0$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter $k_{\rm M}$ und $\varphi_{\rm M}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl der darzustellenden Signale: $x(t)$,  $y(t)$, $z(t)$, $\varepsilon(t)$, $\varepsilon^2(t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Signale&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Zeit $t_*$ für die Numerikausgabe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe der Signalwerte $x(t_*)$,  $y(t_*)$, $z(t_*)$  und $\varepsilon(t_*)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe des Hauptergebnisses $P_\varepsilon$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Abspeichern und Zurückholen von Parametersätzen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung: Aufgabenauswahl, Aufgabenstellung und Musterlösung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variationsmöglichkeiten für die grafische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;Funktionen &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern) und $\rm o$ (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Verschieben mit &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Ausschnitt nach links, Ordinate nach rechts),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2005 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] im Rahmen ihrer Diplomarbeit mit &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde dieses Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] im Rahmen seiner Bachelorarbeit (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) neu gestaltet und erweitert.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Applets|^Verzerrungen^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23753</id>
		<title>Applets:Linear Distortions of Periodic Signals</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23753"/>
		<updated>2018-02-28T03:56:32Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Instruction Sheet */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet illustrates the effects of linear distortions (attenuation distortions and phase distortions) with&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Meanings of the  used signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
*the input signal $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*the output signal $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the matched output signal $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the difference signal &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The next block in the model above is &#039;&#039;Matching&#039;&#039;: The output signal $y(t)$ is adjusted in amplitude and phase with equal quantities $k_{\rm M}$ and $\tau_{\rm M}$ for all frequencies which means that this is not a frequency-dependent equalization. Using the signal $z(t)$, one can differentiate between:&lt;br /&gt;
*attenuation distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant attenuation, as well as&lt;br /&gt;
*phase distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant delay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ is used to measure the strength of the linear distortion and is defined as:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale|&#039;&#039;&#039;German description&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Distortions refer to generally unwanted alterations of a message signal through a transmission system. Together with the strong stochastic effects (noise, crosstalk, etc.), they are a crucial limitation for the quality and rate of transmission.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Just as the intensity of noise can be assessed through &lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm N}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039; (SNR) $\rho_{\rm N}$, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distortions can be quantified through&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039; (SDR)&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signal \ Power}{\rm Distortion \ Power} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Linear and Nonlinear Distortions ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
A distinction is made between linear and nonlinear distortions:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nonlinear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;  occur, if at all times $t$ the nonlinear correlation $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ exists between the signal values $x = x(t)$ at the input and $y = y(t)$ at the output, whereby  $y = g(x)$ is defined as the system&#039;s nonlinear characteristic. By creating a cosine signal at the input with frequency $f_0$ the output signal includes  $f_0$, as well as  multiple harmonic waves. We conclude that new frequencies arise through nonlinear distortion.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|For clarification of nonlinear distortions |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Description of a linear system|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Linear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur,  if the transmission channel is characterized by a frequency response $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ Various frequencies are attenuated and delayed differently. Characteristic of this is that although frequencies can disappear (for example, through a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass, a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, or a band&amp;amp;ndash;pass),  no new frequencies can arise. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet only linear distortions are considered.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Description Forms for the Frequency Response ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The generally complex valued frequency response can be represented as follows: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following description variables: &lt;br /&gt;
*The absolute value $|H(f)|$ is called &#039;&#039;&#039;amplitude response&#039;&#039;&#039; and in logarithmic form &#039;&#039;&#039;attenuation function&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Decibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The &#039;&#039;&#039;phase function&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ indicates the negative frequency&amp;amp;ndash;dependent angle of $H(f)$ in the complex plane based on the real axis: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Low&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a low&amp;amp;ndash;Pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (LP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the RC low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is a first order low&amp;amp;ndash;pass. Consequently we can obtain &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_i/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== High&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable high&amp;amp;ndash;pass  (HP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the LC high pass is a first order high pass. Consequently we can obtain  &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f_i)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2\pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2\pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phase function $b(f)$ of high&amp;amp;ndash;pass and low&amp;amp;ndash;pass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
This graphic shows the phase function $b(f)$ with the cut&amp;amp;ndash;off frequency $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ and order $N=1$&lt;br /&gt;
* of a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (green curve),&lt;br /&gt;
* of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass (violet curve).&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The input signal is sinusoidal with frequency $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$ whereby this signal is only turned on at $t=0$: &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad\begin{array}{l} (t &amp;lt; 0), \\   (t&amp;gt;0). \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The left graphic shows the signal $x(t)$. The dashed line marks the first zero at  $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$. The other two graphics show the output signals $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ of  low&amp;amp;ndash;pass  and high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, whereby the change in amplitude was balanced in both cases.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Input signal $x(t)$  (enframed in blue) as well as output signals  $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; green and $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; magenta]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*The first zero of the signal $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ after the low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is delayed by $\tau_{\rm LP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ compared to the first zero of $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; marked with green arrow, whereby $b_{\rm LP}(f/f_{\rm S} = 0.9 \ {\rm rad})$ was considered.&lt;br /&gt;
* In contrast, the phase delay of the high&amp;amp;ndash;pass is negative:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx -0.085 \ {\rm ms}$  and therefore the first zero of $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ occurs before the dashed line.&lt;br /&gt;
*Following this transient response, in both cases the zero crossings again come in the raster of the period duration $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;Remark:&#039;&#039; The shown signals were created using the interactive applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Causal systems &amp;amp;ndash; Laplace transform]]. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Attenuation and Phase Distortions  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Requirements for a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
The adjacent figure shows&lt;br /&gt;
*the even attenuation function $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*the uneven  function curve $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
of a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel. One can see: &lt;br /&gt;
*In a distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free system the attenuation function $a(f)$ must be constant between$f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ around the carrier frequency $f_{\rm T}$, where the input signal  exists &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $X(f) \ne 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
*From the specified constant attenuation value $6 \ \rm dB$ follows for the amplitude response $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; the signal values of all frequencies are thus halved by the system &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;no attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*In addition, in such a system,  the phase function $b(f)$ between $f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ must increase linearly with the frequency. As a result, all frequency components are delayed by the same phase delay $τ$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  &#039;&#039;&#039;no phase distortion&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*The delay $τ$ is fixed by the slope of $b(f)$. The phase function $b(f) \equiv 0$ would result in a delay&amp;amp;ndash;less system  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The following summary considers that &amp;amp;ndash; in this applet &amp;amp;ndash; the input signal is always the sum of two harmonic oscillations,&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
and therefore the channel influence is fully described by the attenuation factors $\alpha_1$ and $\alpha_2$ as well as the phase delays  $\tau_1$ and $\tau_2$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Summary:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*A signal $y(t)$ is only &#039;&#039;&#039;distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free&#039;&#039;&#039; compared to $x(t)$ if $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$. If $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ and $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, then there are exclusively attenuation distortions. &lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Phase distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. If $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ and $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, then there are exclusively phase distortions.  }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; We consider the parameters $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$ for the input signal $x(t)$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Calculate the signal&#039;s period duration $T_0$ and power $P_x$. Can you read the value for $P_x$ off the applet? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ greatest common divisor }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, if }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Vary $\varphi_2$ between $\pm 180^\circ$ while keeping all other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $T_0$ and $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vary $f_2$ between $0 \le f_2 \le 10\ {\rm kHz}$ while keeping all  other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes if }f_2 \ne 0\text{ and } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ changes if }f_2\text{is not a multiple of }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1\cos(\varphi_1) + A_2\cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin(\varphi_1) + A_2\sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{With } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Keeping the previous input signal $x(t)$, set following parameters&lt;br /&gt;
: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$, $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Are there linear distortions? Calculate the received power $P_y$ and the power $P_\varepsilon$ of the differential signal $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ is only attenuated and delayed, but not distorted.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Received power:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ is significantly larger:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; With the same settings as in Exercise (4), vary the matching parameters $k_{\rm M} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}$. How big is the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ is equal to }P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the ideal matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Neither attenuation nor phase distortion.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $(\rm SDR) \ \rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ and } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Attenuation distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.84} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.071 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Phase distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Are there attenuation distortions? Are there phase distortions? How can $y(t)$ be approximated?  &#039;&#039;Hint:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Both attenuation and phase distortions, because }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ and }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Using the parameters from  Exercise  (8),  calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio  $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Best possible adaptation:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.15 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.15 \approx 3.3}$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Now we set $A_2 = 0$ and $A_1 =  1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. The channel is a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of  order  1&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $\underline{(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})}$. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Are there any attenuation  and/or phase distortions? Calculate the channel coefficients $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{At only one frequency there are neither attenuation nor phase distortions.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Attenuation factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phase factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; How do the channel parameters change when using a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 1  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ and $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125 = 0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and is retarded: The cosine turns into a sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences arise when using a  &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;High-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Since }f_1 = f_0\text{ the attenuation factor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ stays the same and }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ which means:}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is also only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and precedes it: The cosine turns into the Minus&amp;amp;ndash;sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences at the signal $y(t)$ can be observed between the Low-pass and the High-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$ when you start with the initial input signal according to Exercise (1) and continuously raise $f_2$ up to $10 \ \rm kHz$ ? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the Low-pass the second term is increasingly suppressed. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the High-pass however the second  term dominates. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ {\rm ms}) + x_2(t).$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_verzerrungen.png|center]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe für das Eingangssignal $x(t)$ per Slider: Amplituden, Frequenzen, Phasenwerte&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für die Kanalparameter: per Slider, Tiefpass oder Hochpass&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter per Slider: Dämpfungsfaktoren und Phasenlaufzeiten&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter für Hoch&amp;amp;ndash; und Tiefpass: Ordnung $n$, Grenzfrequenz $f_0$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter $k_{\rm M}$ und $\varphi_{\rm M}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl der darzustellenden Signale: $x(t)$,  $y(t)$, $z(t)$, $\varepsilon(t)$, $\varepsilon^2(t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Signale&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Zeit $t_*$ für die Numerikausgabe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe der Signalwerte $x(t_*)$,  $y(t_*)$, $z(t_*)$  und $\varepsilon(t_*)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe des Hauptergebnisses $P_\varepsilon$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Abspeichern und Zurückholen von Parametersätzen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung: Aufgabenauswahl, Aufgabenstellung und Musterlösung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variationsmöglichkeiten für die grafische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;Funktionen &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern) und $\rm o$ (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Verschieben mit &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Ausschnitt nach links, Ordinate nach rechts),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] ). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Once again: Open Applet in new Tab==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Applets|^Periodendauer^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23752</id>
		<title>Applets:Linear Distortions of Periodic Signals</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals&amp;diff=23752"/>
		<updated>2018-02-28T03:55:03Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet illustrates the effects of linear distortions (attenuation distortions and phase distortions) with&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Meanings of the  used signals]]&lt;br /&gt;
*the input signal $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*the output signal $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the matched output signal $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the difference signal &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; power $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The next block in the model above is &#039;&#039;Matching&#039;&#039;: The output signal $y(t)$ is adjusted in amplitude and phase with equal quantities $k_{\rm M}$ and $\tau_{\rm M}$ for all frequencies which means that this is not a frequency-dependent equalization. Using the signal $z(t)$, one can differentiate between:&lt;br /&gt;
*attenuation distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant attenuation, as well as&lt;br /&gt;
*phase distortion and frequency&amp;amp;ndash;independant delay.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ is used to measure the strength of the linear distortion and is defined as:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale|&#039;&#039;&#039;German description&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Distortions refer to generally unwanted alterations of a message signal through a transmission system. Together with the strong stochastic effects (noise, crosstalk, etc.), they are a crucial limitation for the quality and rate of transmission.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Just as the intensity of noise can be assessed through &lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm N}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039; (SNR) $\rho_{\rm N}$, &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
distortions can be quantified through&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039; $P_{\rm D}$ and&lt;br /&gt;
*the &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039; (SDR)&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signal \ Power}{\rm Distortion \ Power} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Linear and Nonlinear Distortions ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
A distinction is made between linear and nonlinear distortions:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nonlinear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;  occur, if at all times $t$ the nonlinear correlation $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ exists between the signal values $x = x(t)$ at the input and $y = y(t)$ at the output, whereby  $y = g(x)$ is defined as the system&#039;s nonlinear characteristic. By creating a cosine signal at the input with frequency $f_0$ the output signal includes  $f_0$, as well as  multiple harmonic waves. We conclude that new frequencies arise through nonlinear distortion.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|For clarification of nonlinear distortions |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Description of a linear system|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Linear distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur,  if the transmission channel is characterized by a frequency response $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ Various frequencies are attenuated and delayed differently. Characteristic of this is that although frequencies can disappear (for example, through a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass, a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, or a band&amp;amp;ndash;pass),  no new frequencies can arise. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In this applet only linear distortions are considered.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Description Forms for the Frequency Response ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The generally complex valued frequency response can be represented as follows: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
This results in the following description variables: &lt;br /&gt;
*The absolute value $|H(f)|$ is called &#039;&#039;&#039;amplitude response&#039;&#039;&#039; and in logarithmic form &#039;&#039;&#039;attenuation function&#039;&#039;&#039;: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Decibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*The &#039;&#039;&#039;phase function&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ indicates the negative frequency&amp;amp;ndash;dependent angle of $H(f)$ in the complex plane based on the real axis: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Low&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a low&amp;amp;ndash;Pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (LP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the RC low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is a first order low&amp;amp;ndash;pass. Consequently we can obtain &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_i/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== High&amp;amp;ndash;pass of Order &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Attenuation function $a(f)$ and phase function $b(f)$ of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass of order $N$]]&lt;br /&gt;
The frequency response of a realizable high&amp;amp;ndash;pass  (HP) of order $N$ is:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
For example the LC high pass is a first order high pass. Consequently we can obtain  &lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase function:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the attenuation factor for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f_i)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the phase delay for the frequency $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2\pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2\pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
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[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phase function $b(f)$ of high&amp;amp;ndash;pass and low&amp;amp;ndash;pass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
This graphic shows the phase function $b(f)$ with the cut&amp;amp;ndash;off frequency $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ and order $N=1$&lt;br /&gt;
* of a low&amp;amp;ndash;pass (green curve),&lt;br /&gt;
* of a high&amp;amp;ndash;pass (violet curve).&lt;br /&gt;
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The input signal is sinusoidal with frequency $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$ whereby this signal is only turned on at $t=0$: &lt;br /&gt;
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:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad\begin{array}{l} (t &amp;lt; 0), \\   (t&amp;gt;0). \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The left graphic shows the signal $x(t)$. The dashed line marks the first zero at  $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$. The other two graphics show the output signals $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ of  low&amp;amp;ndash;pass  and high&amp;amp;ndash;pass, whereby the change in amplitude was balanced in both cases.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Input signal $x(t)$  (enframed in blue) as well as output signals  $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; green and $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; magenta]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*The first zero of the signal $y_{\rm LP}(t)$ after the low&amp;amp;ndash;pass is delayed by $\tau_{\rm LP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ compared to the first zero of $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; marked with green arrow, whereby $b_{\rm LP}(f/f_{\rm S} = 0.9 \ {\rm rad})$ was considered.&lt;br /&gt;
* In contrast, the phase delay of the high&amp;amp;ndash;pass is negative:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx -0.085 \ {\rm ms}$  and therefore the first zero of $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ occurs before the dashed line.&lt;br /&gt;
*Following this transient response, in both cases the zero crossings again come in the raster of the period duration $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;Remark:&#039;&#039; The shown signals were created using the interactive applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Causal systems &amp;amp;ndash; Laplace transform]]. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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=== Attenuation and Phase Distortions  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Requirements for a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
The adjacent figure shows&lt;br /&gt;
*the even attenuation function $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*the uneven  function curve $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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of a non&amp;amp;ndash;distorting channel. One can see: &lt;br /&gt;
*In a distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free system the attenuation function $a(f)$ must be constant between$f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ around the carrier frequency $f_{\rm T}$, where the input signal  exists &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $X(f) \ne 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
*From the specified constant attenuation value $6 \ \rm dB$ follows for the amplitude response $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; the signal values of all frequencies are thus halved by the system &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;no attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*In addition, in such a system,  the phase function $b(f)$ between $f_{\rm U}$ and $f_{\rm O}$ must increase linearly with the frequency. As a result, all frequency components are delayed by the same phase delay $τ$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  &#039;&#039;&#039;no phase distortion&#039;&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
*The delay $τ$ is fixed by the slope of $b(f)$. The phase function $b(f) \equiv 0$ would result in a delay&amp;amp;ndash;less system  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
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The following summary considers that &amp;amp;ndash; in this applet &amp;amp;ndash; the input signal is always the sum of two harmonic oscillations,&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
and therefore the channel influence is fully described by the attenuation factors $\alpha_1$ and $\alpha_2$ as well as the phase delays  $\tau_1$ and $\tau_2$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Summary:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*A signal $y(t)$ is only &#039;&#039;&#039;distortion&amp;amp;ndash;free&#039;&#039;&#039; compared to $x(t)$ if $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Attenuation distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$. If $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ and $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, then there are exclusively attenuation distortions. &lt;br /&gt;
* &#039;&#039;&#039;Phase distortions&#039;&#039;&#039; occur when $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. If $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ and $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, then there are exclusively phase distortions.  }}&lt;br /&gt;
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==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*First choose an exercise number.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
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Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; We consider the parameters $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$ for the input signal $x(t)$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Calculate the signal&#039;s period duration $T_0$ and power $P_x$. Can you read the value for $P_x$ off the applet? }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ greatest common divisor }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, if }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Vary $\varphi_2$ between $\pm 180^\circ$ while keeping all other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $T_0$ and $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vary $f_2$ between $0 \le f_2 \le 10\ {\rm kHz}$ while keeping all  other parameters from Exercise (1). How does the value of $P_x$ change?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{No changes if }f_2 \ne 0\text{ and } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ changes if }f_2\text{is not a multiple of }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{If }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1\cos(\varphi_1) + A_2\cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin(\varphi_1) + A_2\sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{With } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Keeping the previous input signal $x(t)$, set following parameters&lt;br /&gt;
: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$, $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Are there linear distortions? Calculate the received power $P_y$ and the power $P_\varepsilon$ of the differential signal $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ is only attenuated and delayed, but not distorted.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Received power:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ is significantly larger:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; With the same settings as in Exercise (4), vary the matching parameters $k_{\rm M} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}$. How big is the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ is equal to }P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the ideal matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Neither attenuation nor phase distortion.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $(\rm SDR) \ \rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ and } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Attenuation distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{when using the best matching parameters:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.84} \text{ and } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.071 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Phase distortions only.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-to-Distortion-Ratio}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; The channel parameters are now set to: $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Are there attenuation distortions? Are there phase distortions? How can $y(t)$ be approximated?  &#039;&#039;Hint:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Both attenuation and phase distortions, because }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ and }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Using the parameters from  Exercise  (8),  calculate the distortion power $P_{\rm D}$ and the the Signal-to-Distortion ratio  $\rho_{\rm D}$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Best possible adaptation:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.15 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.15 \approx 3.3}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Now we set $A_2 = 0$ and $A_1 =  1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. The channel is a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of  order  1&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $\underline{(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})}$. &amp;lt;br&amp;gt;Are there any attenuation  and/or phase distortions? Calculate the channel coefficients $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{At only one frequency there are neither attenuation nor phase distortions.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Attenuation factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phase factor for }f_1=f_0\text{ and }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; How do the channel parameters change when using a &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Low-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 1  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ and $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125 = 0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and is retarded: The cosine turns into a sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
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{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences arise when using a  &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;High-pass of order 2&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; compared to a Low-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$? }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Since }f_1 = f_0\text{ the attenuation factor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ stays the same and }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ which means:}$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{The signal }y(t)\text{  is also only half as big as }x(t)\text{ and precedes it: The cosine turns into the Minus&amp;amp;ndash;sine function}$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; What differences at the signal $y(t)$ can be observed between the Low-pass and the High-pass of order 2  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$ when you start with the initial input signal according to Exercise (1) and continuously raise $f_2$ up to $10 \ \rm kHz$ ? }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the Low-pass the second term is increasingly suppressed. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{With the High-pass however the second  term dominates. For }f_2 =  10 \ {\rm kHz}\text{: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ {\rm ms}) + x_2(t).$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Instruction Sheet==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Periodendauer_fertig_version1.png|left]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe per Slider&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich der graphischen Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variationsmöglichkeit für die  graphische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Abspeichern und Zurückholen von Parametersätzen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe des Hauptergebnisses $T_0$; graphische Verdeutlichung durch rote Linie&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgabe von $x_{\rm max}$ und der Signalwerte $x(t_*) = x(t_* + T_0)= x(t_* + 2T_0)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Darstellung der Signalwerte $x(t_*) = x(t_* + T_0)= x(t_* + 2T_0)$ durch grüne Punkte&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Einstellung der Zeit $t_*$ für die Signalwerte $x(t_*) = x(t_* + T_0)= x(t_* + 2T_0)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Details zum obigen Punkt (C)&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(*)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;Funktionen &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern) und $\rm o$ (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(*)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Verschieben mit &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Ausschnitt nach links, Ordinate nach rechts),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(*)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(*)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br clear = all&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]] ). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Once again: Open Applet in new Tab==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLinkEn|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Applets|^Periodendauer^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale&amp;diff=23751</id>
		<title>Applets:Lineare Verzerrungen periodischer Signale</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale&amp;diff=23751"/>
		<updated>2018-02-28T03:54:27Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Versuchsdurchführung */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Programmbeschreibung==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses Applet veranschaulicht die Auswirkungen von linearen Verzerrungen (Dämpfungsverzerrungen und Phasenverzerrungen) anhand &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Bedeutung der verwendeten Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
*des Eingangssignals $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Ausgangssignals $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Ausgangssignals $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Differenzsignals &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als nächster Block im obigen Modell folgt das &amp;amp;bdquo;Matching&amp;amp;rdquo;:  Dabei wird das Ausgangssignal $y(t)$ mit für alle Frequenzen einheitlichen Größen   $k_{\rm M}$ und $\tau_{\rm M}$ in Amplitude bzw. Phase angepasst. Dies ist also keine frequenzabhängige Entzerrung. Anhand des Signals $z(t)$ kann unterschieden werden &lt;br /&gt;
*zwischen einer Dämpfungsverzerrung und einer frequenzunabhängigen Dämpfung, sowie&lt;br /&gt;
*zwischen einer Phasenverzerrung und einer für alle Frequenzen gleichen Laufzeit.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als Maß für die Stärke der linearen Verzerrungen wird die Verzerrungsleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm D}$ verwendet. Für diese gilt:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals|&#039;&#039;&#039;Englische Beschreibung&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretischer Hintergrund==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Unter &#039;&#039;&#039;Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortions&#039;&#039;) versteht man allgemein die unerwünschte deterministische Veränderungen eines Nachrichtensignals durch ein Übertragungssystem. Sie sind bei vielen Nachrichtensystemen neben den stochastischen Störungen (Rauschen, Nebensprechen, etc.)  eine entscheidende Begrenzung für die Übertragungsqualität und die Übertragungsrate.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenso wie man die &amp;amp;bdquo;Stärke&amp;amp;rdquo; von Rauschen durch &lt;br /&gt;
*die Rauschleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm N}$ und&lt;br /&gt;
*das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Rauschleistungsverhältnis  (englisch: &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039;, SNR)  $\rho_{\rm N}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
bewertet, verwendet man zur Quantifizierung der Verzerrungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*die Verzerrungsleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortion  Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm D}$ und&lt;br /&gt;
*das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Verzerrungsleistungsverhältnis  (englisch: &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039;, SDR)  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signalleistung}{\rm Verzerrungsleistung} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Lineare und nichtlineare Verzerrungen ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Man unterscheidet zwischen linearen und nichtlinearen Verzerrungen:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nichtlineare Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; gibt es, wenn zu allen Zeiten $t$ zwischen dem Signalwert $x = x(t)$ am Eingang und dem Ausgangssignalwert $y = y(t)$ der nichtlineare Zusammenhang $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ besteht, wobei $y = g(x)$ die nichtlineare Kennlinie des Systems bezeichnet. Legt man an den Eingang ein Cosinussignal der Freuenz $f_0$ an, so beinhaltet das Ausgangssignal neben  $f_0$ auch Vielfache hiervon &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; so genannte &#039;&#039;Oberwellen&#039;&#039;. Durch nichtlineare Verzerrungen entstehen also neue Frequenzen.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|Zur Verdeutlichung  nichtlinearer Verzerrungen |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Beschreibung eines linearen Systems|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Lineare Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; entstehen dann, wenn der Übertragungskanal durch einen Frequenzgang $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ charakterisiert wird. Dann werden unterschiedliche Frequenzen unterschiedlich gedämpft und unterschiedlich verzögert. Charakteristisch hierfür ist, dass zwar Frequenzen verschwinden können (zum Beispiel durch einen Tiefpass, einen Hochpass oder einen Bandpass), dass aber keine neuen Frequenzen entstehen.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In diesem Applet werden nur lineare Verzerrungen betrachtet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Beschreibungsformen für den  Frequenzgang ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Der im Allgemeinen komplexe Frequenzgang kann auch wie folgt dargestellt werden: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus ergeben sich folgende Beschreibungsgrößen: &lt;br /&gt;
*Der Betrag $|H(f)|$ wird als &#039;&#039;&#039;Amplitudengang&#039;&#039;&#039; und in logarithmierter Form als &#039;&#039;&#039;Dämpfungsverlauf&#039;&#039;&#039; bezeichnet: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Dezibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der &#039;&#039;&#039;Phasengang&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ gibt den negativen frequenzabhängigen Winkel von $H(f)$ in der komplexen Ebene an, bezogen auf die reelle Achse: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Tiefpass &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung   ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Dämpfungsverlauf und Phasenverlauf eines Tiefpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Der Frequenzgang eines realisierbaren Tiefpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;Ordnung lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Ein einfacher RC&amp;amp;ndash;Tiefpass hat diesen Verlauf mit $N=1$. Damit erhält man &lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Phasenverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsfaktor für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Phasenlaufzeit für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Hochpass &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung   ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Dämpfungsverlauf und Phasenverlauf eines Hochpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Der Frequenzgang eines realisierbaren Hochpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;Ordnung lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Ein einfacher LC&amp;amp;ndash;Tiefpass hat diesen Verlauf mit $N=1$. Damit erhält man &lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Phasenverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsfaktor für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Phasenlaufzeit für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2 \pi  f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phasenfunktion $b(f)$ von Tiefpass und Hochpass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Die Grafik zeigt jeweils für die Grenzfrequenz $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ und die Ordnung $N=1$ die Phasenfunktion $b(f)$&lt;br /&gt;
* eines Tiefpasses (englisch: &#039;&#039;low&amp;amp;ndash;pass&#039;&#039;) als grüne Kurve, und&lt;br /&gt;
* eines Hochpasses (englisch: &#039;&#039;high&amp;amp;ndash;pass&#039;&#039;) als violette  Kurve.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Das Eingangssignal sei jeweils sinusförmig mit der Frequenz $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$, wobei dieses Signal erst zum Zeitpunkt $t=0$ eingeschaltet wird: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad \quad \begin{array}{*{20}c}   {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} }  \\   {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} }    \\ \end{array}\begin{array} \ t &amp;lt; 0, \\   t&amp;gt;0. \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der linken (blau umrandeten) Grafik ist dieses Signal $x(t)$ dargestellt. Der Zeitpunkt $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$ der ersten Nullstelle ist durch eine gestrichelte Linie markiert. Die beiden anderen Grafiken zeigen die Ausgangssignale $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ von Tiefpass und Hochpass, wobei in beiden Fällen die Amplitudenänderungen ausgeglichen wurden.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Eingangssignal $x(t)$ sowie Ausgangssignale  $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Nullstelle des Signals $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ nach dem Tiefpass kommt um $\tau_{\rm TP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ später als die erste Nullstelle von $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; markiert mit grünem Pfeil, wobei $b_{\rm TP}(f/f_{\rm S} )= 0.9 \ {\rm rad}$ berücksichtigt wurde.&lt;br /&gt;
* Dagegen ist die Laufzeit des Hochpasses negativ:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.085 \ {\rm ms}$ und die erste Nullstelle von $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ kommt deshalb vor der weißen Markierung.&lt;br /&gt;
*Nach diesem Einschwingvorgang kommen in beiden Fällen die Nulldurchgänge wieder im Raster der Periodendauer  $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;Anmerkung:&#039;&#039; Die gezeigten Signalverläufe wurden mit dem intereaktiven Applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Kausale Systeme &amp;amp;ndash; Laplacetransformation]] erstellt. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Dämpfungsverzerrungen und  Phasenverzerrungen  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Voraussetzung für einen nichtverzerrenden Kanal|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Die nebenstehende Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*den geraden Dämpfungsverlauf $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*den ungeraden Phasenverlauf $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
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eines verzerrungsfreien Systems. Man erkennt: &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei einem verzerrungsfreien Systems muss in einem Bereich von $f_{\rm U}$ bis $f_{\rm O}$ um die Trägerfrequenz $f_{\rm T}$, in dem das Signal $x(t)$ Anteile besitzt, die  Dämpfungsfunktion $a(f)$ konstant sein. &lt;br /&gt;
*Aus dem angegebenen konstanten Dämpfungswert $6 \ \rm dB$ folgt für den Amplitudengang $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; die Signalwerte aller Frequenzen werden somit durch das System halbiert &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; keine Dämpfungsverzerrungen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Zusätzlich muss bei einem solchen Systems der Phasenverlauf $b(f)$ zwischen $f_{\rm U}$ und $f_{\rm O}$ linear mit der Frequenz ansteigen. Dies hat zur Folge, dass alle Frequenzanteile um die gleiche Phasenlaufzeit $τ$ verzögert werden &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  keine Phasenverzerrungen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Verzögerung $τ$ liegt durch die Steigung von $b(f)$ fest. Mit $b(f) = 0$ würde sich ein laufzeitfreies System ergeben  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
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Die folgende Zusammenfassung berücksichtigt, dass in diesem Applet das Einganssignal stets die Summe zweier harmonischer Schwingungen  ist:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right).$$&lt;br /&gt;
Damit wird der Kanaleinfluss durch die Dämpfungsfaktoren $\alpha_1$ und $\alpha_2$ sowie die Phasenlaufzeiten  $\tau_1$ und $\tau_2$ vollständig beschrieben:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*Ein Signal $y(t)$ ist gegenüber dem Eingang $x(t)$ nur dann unverzerrt, wenn $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; und &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ gilt &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* Dämpfungsverzerrungen ergeben sich, falls  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ ist . Ist $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ und $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, so liegen ausschließlich Dämpfungsverzerrungen vor. &lt;br /&gt;
* Phasenverzerrungen gibt es für  $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. Ist $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ und $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, so liegen ausschließlich Phasenverzerrungen vor. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Aufgabennummer.&lt;br /&gt;
*Eine Aufgabenbeschreibung wird angezeigt.&lt;br /&gt;
*Parameterwerte sind angepasst.&lt;br /&gt;
*Lösung nach Drücken von &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo;. &lt;br /&gt;
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Die Nummer &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; entspricht einem &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo;:&lt;br /&gt;
*Gleiche Einstellung wie beim Programmstart.&lt;br /&gt;
*Ausgabe eines &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;ndash;Textes&amp;amp;rdquo; mit weiteren Erläuterungen zum Applet.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für das Eingangssignal $x(t)$ gelte $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Wie groß ist die Periodendauer $T_0$? Welche Leistung $P_x$ weist dieses Signal auf? Wo kann man diesen Wert im Programm ablesen? }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ größter gemeinsamer Teiler }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, wenn }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Phase $\varphi_2$ im gesamten möglichen Bereich $\pm 180^\circ$. Wie ändern sich $T_0$ und $P_x$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Keine Veränderungen:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Frequenz $f_2$ im Bereich $0 \le f_2 \le 5\ {\rm kHz}$. Wie ändert sich die Signalleistung $P_x$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Keine Veränderungen, falls }f_2 \ne 0\text{ und } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ ändert sich, falls }f_2\text{ kein Vielfaches von }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Falls }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}\text{Allgemeine Formel noch überprüfen}$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Falls }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1 \cdot \cos(\varphi_1) + A_2 \cdot \cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin \cdot (\varphi_1) + A_2 \cdot \sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.  Mit } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgehend vom bisherigen Eingangssignal $x(t)$ gelte für den Kanal: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Zudem sei  $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Gibt es lineare Verzerrungen? Wie groß ist die Empfangsleistung $P_y$ und die Leistung $P_\varepsilon$ des Differenzsignals $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ ist unverzerrt, nur gedämpft und verzögert.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Empfangsleistung:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ ist deutlich größer:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Matchingparameter $k_{\rm M} \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}$. Wie groß ist die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ ist gleich der Leistung }P_\varepsilon  \text{ des Differenzsignals bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{weder Dämpfungs- noch Phasenverzerrungen.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für den Kanal gelte nun $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Wie groß sind nun die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$ und das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Verzerrungsverhäldnis $(\rm SDR)$ $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ und } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Nur Dämpfungsverzerrungen.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-zu-Verzerrung-Leistungsverhältnis}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für den Kanal gelte nun $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Wie groß sind nun $P_{\rm D}$ und $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.82} \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.072 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Nur Phasenverzerrungen.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-zu-Verzerrung-Leistungsverhältnis}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Die Kanalparameter seien nun $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Gibt es Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; und/oder Phasenverzerrungen? &lt;br /&gt;
:Wie kann man $y(t)$ annähern?  &#039;&#039;Hinweis:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Es gibt sowohlDämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; als auch Phasenverzerrungen, weil }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ und }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Es gilt }y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi  f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Parameter von &#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;.  Wie groß ist die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$ and das Signal-zu-Verzerrungsleistungsverhältnis $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Bestmögliche Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.156 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.156 \approx 3.2}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Nun gelte $A_2 = 0$ sowie $A_1 = 1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. Der Kanal sei ein &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Tiefpass erster Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Gibt es Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; und/oder Phasenverzerrungen? Wie groß sind die Kanalkoeffizienten $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Bei nur einer Frequenz gibt es weder Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; noch Phasenverzerrungen.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Dämpfungsfaktor für }f_1=f_0\text{ und }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phasenlaufzeit für}f_1=f_0\text{ und }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Wie ändern sich die Kanalparameter durch einen &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; gegenüber einem Tiefpass erster Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Es gilt }\hspace{0.15cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ und $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125  0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Das Signal }y(t)\text{  ist nur halb so groß wie }x(t)\text{ und läuft diesem nach: Aus dem Cosinusverlauf wird die Sinusfunktion}$. &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Welche Unterschiede ergeben sich bei einem &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Hochpass zweiter Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; gegenüber einem Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Wegen }f_1 = f_0\text{ ergibt sich der gleiche Dämpfungsfaktor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ und  es gilt }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ Das heißt:}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Das Signal }y(t)\text{  ist auch hier nur halb so groß wie }x(t)\text{ und läuft diesem vor: Aus dem Cosinusverlauf wird die Minus&amp;amp;ndash;Sinusfunktion}$. &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Welche Unterschiede erkennen Sie am Signalverlauf $y(t)$ zwischen dem Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung und dem Hochpass zweiter Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$, wenn Sie vom Eingangssignal gemäß&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; ausgehen und Sie die Frequenz $f_2$ kontinuierlich bis auf $10 \ \rm kHz$ erhöhen. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Nach dem Tiefpass  wird der zweite Anteil mehr und mehr unterdrückt. Für }f_2 =  10 \ \rm kHz\text{ gilt: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Nach dem Hochpass überwiegt dagegen der zweite Anteil. Für }f_2 =  10 \ \rm kHz\text{ gilt: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ \rm ms) + x_2(t).$ .&lt;br /&gt;
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==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_verzerrungen.png|center]]&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe für das Eingangssignal $x(t)$ per Slider: Amplituden, Frequenzen, Phasenwerte&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für die Kanalparameter: per Slider, Tiefpass oder Hochpass&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter per Slider: Dämpfungsfaktoren und Phasenlaufzeiten&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter für Hoch&amp;amp;ndash; und Tiefpass: Ordnung $n$, Grenzfrequenz $f_0$&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter $k_{\rm M}$ und $\varphi_{\rm M}$&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl der darzustellenden Signale: $x(t)$,  $y(t)$, $z(t)$, $\varepsilon(t)$, $\varepsilon^2(t)$&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Signale&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Zeit $t_*$ für die Numerikausgabe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe der Signalwerte $x(t_*)$,  $y(t_*)$, $z(t_*)$  und $\varepsilon(t_*)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe des Hauptergebnisses $P_\varepsilon$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Abspeichern und Zurückholen von Parametersätzen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung: Aufgabenauswahl, Aufgabenstellung und Musterlösung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variationsmöglichkeiten für die grafische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;Funktionen &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern) und $\rm o$ (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Verschieben mit &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Ausschnitt nach links, Ordinate nach rechts),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2005 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] im Rahmen ihrer Diplomarbeit mit &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde dieses Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] im Rahmen seiner Bachelorarbeit (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) neu gestaltet und erweitert.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Applets|^Verzerrungen^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale&amp;diff=23750</id>
		<title>Applets:Lineare Verzerrungen periodischer Signale</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Lineare_Verzerrungen_periodischer_Signale&amp;diff=23750"/>
		<updated>2018-02-28T03:51:59Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Versuchsdurchführung */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}} &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Programmbeschreibung==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses Applet veranschaulicht die Auswirkungen von linearen Verzerrungen (Dämpfungsverzerrungen und Phasenverzerrungen) anhand &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Modell_version2.png|right|frame|Bedeutung der verwendeten Signale]]&lt;br /&gt;
*des Eingangssignals $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_x$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right), $$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Ausgangssignals $y(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_y$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Ausgangssignals $z(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_z$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z(t) = k_{\rm M} \cdot  y(t-\tau_{\rm M})  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*des Differenzsignals &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Leistung $P_\varepsilon$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als nächster Block im obigen Modell folgt das &amp;amp;bdquo;Matching&amp;amp;rdquo;:  Dabei wird das Ausgangssignal $y(t)$ mit für alle Frequenzen einheitlichen Größen   $k_{\rm M}$ und $\tau_{\rm M}$ in Amplitude bzw. Phase angepasst. Dies ist also keine frequenzabhängige Entzerrung. Anhand des Signals $z(t)$ kann unterschieden werden &lt;br /&gt;
*zwischen einer Dämpfungsverzerrung und einer frequenzunabhängigen Dämpfung, sowie&lt;br /&gt;
*zwischen einer Phasenverzerrung und einer für alle Frequenzen gleichen Laufzeit.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Als Maß für die Stärke der linearen Verzerrungen wird die Verzerrungsleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortion Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm D}$ verwendet. Für diese gilt:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$P_{\rm D} = \min_{k_{\rm M},  \ \tau_{\rm M}} P_\varepsilon.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Applets:Linear_Distortions_of_Periodic_Signals|&#039;&#039;&#039;Englische Beschreibung&#039;&#039;&#039;]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretischer Hintergrund==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Unter &#039;&#039;&#039;Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortions&#039;&#039;) versteht man allgemein die unerwünschte deterministische Veränderungen eines Nachrichtensignals durch ein Übertragungssystem. Sie sind bei vielen Nachrichtensystemen neben den stochastischen Störungen (Rauschen, Nebensprechen, etc.)  eine entscheidende Begrenzung für die Übertragungsqualität und die Übertragungsrate.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Ebenso wie man die &amp;amp;bdquo;Stärke&amp;amp;rdquo; von Rauschen durch &lt;br /&gt;
*die Rauschleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Noise Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm N}$ und&lt;br /&gt;
*das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Rauschleistungsverhältnis  (englisch: &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Noise Ratio&#039;&#039;, SNR)  $\rho_{\rm N}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
bewertet, verwendet man zur Quantifizierung der Verzerrungen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*die Verzerrungsleistung (englisch: &#039;&#039;Distortion  Power&#039;&#039;) $P_{\rm D}$ und&lt;br /&gt;
*das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Verzerrungsleistungsverhältnis  (englisch: &#039;&#039;Signal&amp;amp;ndash;to&amp;amp;ndash;Distortion Ratio&#039;&#039;, SDR)  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\rho_{\rm D}=\frac{\rm Signalleistung}{\rm Verzerrungsleistung} = \frac{P_x}{P_{\rm D} }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Lineare und nichtlineare Verzerrungen ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Man unterscheidet zwischen linearen und nichtlinearen Verzerrungen:&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Nichtlineare Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; gibt es, wenn zu allen Zeiten $t$ zwischen dem Signalwert $x = x(t)$ am Eingang und dem Ausgangssignalwert $y = y(t)$ der nichtlineare Zusammenhang $y = g(x) \ne {\rm const.}  \cdot x$ besteht, wobei $y = g(x)$ die nichtlineare Kennlinie des Systems bezeichnet. Legt man an den Eingang ein Cosinussignal der Freuenz $f_0$ an, so beinhaltet das Ausgangssignal neben  $f_0$ auch Vielfache hiervon &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; so genannte &#039;&#039;Oberwellen&#039;&#039;. Durch nichtlineare Verzerrungen entstehen also neue Frequenzen.&lt;br /&gt;
  &lt;br /&gt;
[[File:LZI_T_2_2_S3_vers2.png|center|frame|Zur Verdeutlichung  nichtlinearer Verzerrungen |class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID899__LZI_T_2_3_S1_neu.png|right |frame| Beschreibung eines linearen Systems|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
*&#039;&#039;&#039;Lineare Verzerrungen&#039;&#039;&#039; entstehen dann, wenn der Übertragungskanal durch einen Frequenzgang $H(f) \ne \rm const.$ charakterisiert wird. Dann werden unterschiedliche Frequenzen unterschiedlich gedämpft und unterschiedlich verzögert. Charakteristisch hierfür ist, dass zwar Frequenzen verschwinden können (zum Beispiel durch einen Tiefpass, einen Hochpass oder einen Bandpass), dass aber keine neuen Frequenzen entstehen.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In diesem Applet werden nur lineare Verzerrungen betrachtet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Beschreibungsformen für den  Frequenzgang ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Der im Allgemeinen komplexe Frequenzgang kann auch wie folgt dargestellt werden: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = |H(f)| \cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j} \hspace{0.05cm} \cdot&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} b(f)} = {\rm e}^{-a(f)}\cdot {\rm e}^{-{\rm j}&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.05cm} \cdot \hspace{0.05cm} b(f)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Daraus ergeben sich folgende Beschreibungsgrößen: &lt;br /&gt;
*Der Betrag $|H(f)|$ wird als &#039;&#039;&#039;Amplitudengang&#039;&#039;&#039; und in logarithmierter Form als &#039;&#039;&#039;Dämpfungsverlauf&#039;&#039;&#039; bezeichnet: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) = - \ln |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in \hspace{0.1cm}Neper&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}(Np) } = - 20 \cdot \lg |H(f)|\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Dezibel \hspace{0.1cm}(dB) }.$$&lt;br /&gt;
*Der &#039;&#039;&#039;Phasengang&#039;&#039;&#039; $b(f)$ gibt den negativen frequenzabhängigen Winkel von $H(f)$ in der komplexen Ebene an, bezogen auf die reelle Achse: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) = - {\rm arc} \hspace{0.1cm}H(f) \hspace{0.2cm}{\rm in&lt;br /&gt;
\hspace{0.1cm}Radian \hspace{0.1cm}(rad)}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Tiefpass &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung   ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Tiefpass_version2.png|right|frame|Dämpfungsverlauf und Phasenverlauf eines Tiefpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Der Frequenzgang eines realisierbaren Tiefpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;Ordnung lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{1}{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Ein einfacher RC&amp;amp;ndash;Tiefpass hat diesen Verlauf mit $N=1$. Damit erhält man &lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f/f_0)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Phasenverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =N \cdot \arctan( f/f_0) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsfaktor für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f/f_0)^2]^{-N/2}$$  &lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Phasenlaufzeit für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{N \cdot \arctan( f_i/f_0)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Hochpass &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung   ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Hochpass_version2.png|right|frame|Dämpfungsverlauf und Phasenverlauf eines Hochpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;ter Ordnung]]&lt;br /&gt;
Der Frequenzgang eines realisierbaren Hochpasses &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;N&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;&amp;amp;ndash;Ordnung lautet:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$H(f) = \left [\frac{ {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }{1 + {\rm j}\cdot f/f_0 }\right ]^N\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
Ein einfacher LC&amp;amp;ndash;Tiefpass hat diesen Verlauf mit $N=1$. Damit erhält man &lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$a(f) =N/2 \cdot \ln  [1+( f_0/f)^2] \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Phasenverlauf:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$b(f) =-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f) \hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*den Dämpfungsfaktor für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\alpha_i =|H(f = f_i)| =  [1+( f_0/f)^2]^{-N/2}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)= \alpha_i  \cdot A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t)\hspace{0.05cm},$$&lt;br /&gt;
*die Phasenlaufzeit für die Frequenz $f=f_i$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\tau_i =\frac{b(f_i)}{2 \pi f_i} = \frac{-N \cdot \arctan( f_0/f_i)}{2 \pi f_i}$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} x(t)= A_i\cdot \cos(2\pi f_i t) \hspace{0.1cm}\rightarrow \hspace{0.1cm}  y(t)=A_i\cdot \cos(2 \pi  f_i (t- \tau_i))\hspace{0.05cm}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_1_englisch.png|right|frame|Phasenfunktion $b(f)$ von Tiefpass und Hochpass]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Beispiel:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
Die Grafik zeigt jeweils für die Grenzfrequenz $f_0 = 1\ \rm kHz$ und die Ordnung $N=1$ die Phasenfunktion $b(f)$&lt;br /&gt;
* eines Tiefpasses (englisch: &#039;&#039;low&amp;amp;ndash;pass&#039;&#039;) als grüne Kurve, und&lt;br /&gt;
* eines Hochpasses (englisch: &#039;&#039;high&amp;amp;ndash;pass&#039;&#039;) als violette  Kurve.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Das Eingangssignal sei jeweils sinusförmig mit der Frequenz $f_{\rm S} = 1.25\ {\rm kHz}$, wobei dieses Signal erst zum Zeitpunkt $t=0$ eingeschaltet wird: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = \left\{ \begin{array}{l} \hspace{0.75cm}0  \\ \sin(2\pi \cdot f_{\rm S}  \cdot t ) \\  \end{array} \right.\quad \quad \begin{array}{*{20}c}   {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} }  \\   {\rm{f\ddot{u}r} }    \\ \end{array}\begin{array} \ t &amp;lt; 0, \\   t&amp;gt;0. \\ \end{array}$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
In der linken (blau umrandeten) Grafik ist dieses Signal $x(t)$ dargestellt. Der Zeitpunkt $t = T_0 = 0.8\ {\rm ms}$ der ersten Nullstelle ist durch eine gestrichelte Linie markiert. Die beiden anderen Grafiken zeigen die Ausgangssignale $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ von Tiefpass und Hochpass, wobei in beiden Fällen die Amplitudenänderungen ausgeglichen wurden.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Verzerrungen_HP_TP_2_version2.png|center|frame|Eingangssignal $x(t)$ sowie Ausgangssignale  $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ und $y_{\rm HP}(t)$]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Nullstelle des Signals $y_{\rm TP}(t)$ nach dem Tiefpass kommt um $\tau_{\rm TP} = 0.9/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.115 \ {\rm ms}$ später als die erste Nullstelle von $x(t)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; markiert mit grünem Pfeil, wobei $b_{\rm TP}(f/f_{\rm S} )= 0.9 \ {\rm rad}$ berücksichtigt wurde.&lt;br /&gt;
* Dagegen ist die Laufzeit des Hochpasses negativ:  $\tau_{\rm HP} = -0.67/(2\pi) \cdot T_0 \approx 0.085 \ {\rm ms}$ und die erste Nullstelle von $y_{\rm HP}(t)$ kommt deshalb vor der weißen Markierung.&lt;br /&gt;
*Nach diesem Einschwingvorgang kommen in beiden Fällen die Nulldurchgänge wieder im Raster der Periodendauer  $T_0 = 0.8 \ {\rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;Anmerkung:&#039;&#039; Die gezeigten Signalverläufe wurden mit dem intereaktiven Applet [[Applets:Kausale_Systeme_-_Laplacetransformation|Kausale Systeme &amp;amp;ndash; Laplacetransformation]] erstellt. }}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Dämpfungsverzerrungen und  Phasenverzerrungen  ===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:P_ID900__LZI_T_2_3_S2_neu.png|frame| Voraussetzung für einen nichtverzerrenden Kanal|right|class=fit]]&lt;br /&gt;
Die nebenstehende Grafik zeigt &lt;br /&gt;
*den geraden Dämpfungsverlauf $a(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $a(-f) = a(f)$, und &lt;br /&gt;
*den ungeraden Phasenverlauf $b(f)$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $b(-f) = -b(- f)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
eines verzerrungsfreien Systems. Man erkennt: &lt;br /&gt;
*Bei einem verzerrungsfreien Systems muss in einem Bereich von $f_{\rm U}$ bis $f_{\rm O}$ um die Trägerfrequenz $f_{\rm T}$, in dem das Signal $x(t)$ Anteile besitzt, die  Dämpfungsfunktion $a(f)$ konstant sein. &lt;br /&gt;
*Aus dem angegebenen konstanten Dämpfungswert $6 \ \rm dB$ folgt für den Amplitudengang $|H(f)| = 0.5$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; die Signalwerte aller Frequenzen werden somit durch das System halbiert &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; keine Dämpfungsverzerrungen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Zusätzlich muss bei einem solchen Systems der Phasenverlauf $b(f)$ zwischen $f_{\rm U}$ und $f_{\rm O}$ linear mit der Frequenz ansteigen. Dies hat zur Folge, dass alle Frequenzanteile um die gleiche Phasenlaufzeit $τ$ verzögert werden &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  keine Phasenverzerrungen.&lt;br /&gt;
*Die Verzögerung $τ$ liegt durch die Steigung von $b(f)$ fest. Mit $b(f) = 0$ würde sich ein laufzeitfreies System ergeben  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $τ = 0$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Die folgende Zusammenfassung berücksichtigt, dass in diesem Applet das Einganssignal stets die Summe zweier harmonischer Schwingungen  ist:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$x(t) = x_1(t) + x_2(t) = A_1\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_1\cdot t- \varphi_1\right)+A_2\cdot \cos\left(2\pi f_2\cdot t- \varphi_2\right).$$&lt;br /&gt;
Damit wird der Kanaleinfluss durch die Dämpfungsfaktoren $\alpha_1$ und $\alpha_2$ sowie die Phasenlaufzeiten  $\tau_1$ und $\tau_2$ vollständig beschrieben:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$y(t) = \alpha_1 \cdot  x_1(t-\tau_1)  +  \alpha_2  \cdot  x_2(t-\tau_2).$$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\text{Fazit:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
*Ein Signal $y(t)$ ist gegenüber dem Eingang $x(t)$ nur dann unverzerrt, wenn $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2= \alpha$ &amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;u&amp;gt; und &amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;&amp;amp;nbsp; $\tau_1 = \tau_2= \tau$ gilt &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $y(t) = \alpha \cdot  x(t-\tau)$.&lt;br /&gt;
* Dämpfungsverzerrungen ergeben sich, falls  $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ ist . Ist $\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2$ und $\tau_1 = \tau_2$, so liegen ausschließlich Dämpfungsverzerrungen vor. &lt;br /&gt;
* Phasenverzerrungen gibt es für  $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. Ist $\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$ und $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2$, so liegen ausschließlich Phasenverzerrungen vor. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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==Versuchsdurchführung==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Exercises_verzerrungen.png|right]]&lt;br /&gt;
*Wählen Sie zunächst die Aufgabennummer.&lt;br /&gt;
*An exercise description is displayed. &lt;br /&gt;
*Parameter values are adjusted to the respective exercises.&lt;br /&gt;
*Click &amp;amp;bdquo;Hide solition&amp;amp;rdquo; to display the solution. &lt;br /&gt;
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Number &amp;amp;bdquo;0&amp;amp;rdquo; is a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset&amp;amp;rdquo; button:&lt;br /&gt;
*Sets parameters to initial values (when loading the page).&lt;br /&gt;
*Displays a &amp;amp;bdquo;Reset text&amp;amp;rdquo; to describe the applet further.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für das Eingangssignal $x(t)$ gelte $A_1 = 0.8\ {\rm V}, \ A_2 = 0.6\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 0.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ f_2 = 1.5\ {\rm kHz}, \ \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Wie groß ist die Periodendauer $T_0$? Welche Leistung $P_x$ weist dieses Signal auf? Wo kann man diesen Wert im Programm ablesen? }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}T_0 = \big [\hspace{-0.1cm}\text{ größter gemeinsamer Teiler }(0.5  \ {\rm kHz}, \ 1.5  \ {\rm kHz})\big ]^{-1}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ =  2.0 \ {\rm ms}};$ &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2/2 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 0.5 \ {\rm V^2}} = P_\varepsilon\text{, wenn }\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 0} \ \Rightarrow \ z(t) \equiv 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Phase $\varphi_2$ im gesamten möglichen Bereich $\pm 180^\circ$. Wie ändern sich $T_0$ und $P_x$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Keine Veränderungen:}\hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ T_0 = 2.0 \ {\rm ms}; \hspace{0.2cm} P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Frequenz $f_2$ im Bereich $0 \le f_2 \le 5\ {\rm kHz}$. Wie ändert sich die Signalleistung $P_x$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Keine Veränderungen, falls }f_2 \ne 0\text{ und } f_2 \ne f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_x =  0.5 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} \hspace{0.2cm} T_0 \text{ ändert sich, falls }f_2\text{ kein Vielfaches von }f_1$.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Falls }f_2 = 0\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = A_1^2/2 + A_2^2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.68 \ {\rm V^2}}$. $\hspace{3cm}\text{Allgemeine Formel noch überprüfen}$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Falls }f_2 = f_1\text{:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_x = [A_1 \cdot \cos(\varphi_1) + A_2 \cdot \cos(\varphi_2)]^2/2 + [A_1\sin \cdot (\varphi_1) + A_2 \cdot \sin(\varphi_2)]^2/2 \text{.  Mit } \varphi_1 = 90^\circ, \ \varphi_2 = 30^\circ\text{:}\hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ P_x =  0.74 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.} $&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Ausgehend vom bisherigen Eingangssignal $x(t)$ gelte für den Kanal: $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Zudem sei  $k_{\rm M} = 1 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M} = 0$ . &lt;br /&gt;
:Gibt es lineare Verzerrungen? Wie groß ist die Empfangsleistung $P_y$ und die Leistung $P_\varepsilon$ des Differenzsignals $\varepsilon(t) = z(t) - x(t)$?  }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ y(t) = 0.5 \cdot x(t- 1\ {\rm ms})}\text{ ist unverzerrt, nur gedämpft und verzögert.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Empfangsleistung:}\hspace{0.2cm} P_y = (A_1/2)^2/2 + (A_2/2)^2/2\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 0.125 \ {\rm V^2}}\text{.   } P_\varepsilon \text{ ist deutlich größer:} \hspace{0.1cm} \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_\varepsilon = 0.625 \ {\rm V^2}}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variieren Sie bei sonst gleicher Einstellung wie unter &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039; die Matchingparameter $k_{\rm M} \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}$. Wie groß ist die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D}\text{ ist gleich der Leistung }P_\varepsilon  \text{ des Differenzsignals bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}k_{\rm M} = 2 \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}=T_0 - 0.5\ {\rm ms} = 1.5\ {\rm ms}$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}z(t) = x(t)\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\varepsilon(t) = 0\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}P_{\rm D}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = P_\varepsilon = 0} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}\text{weder Dämpfungs- noch Phasenverzerrungen.}$  &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für den Kanal gelte nun $\alpha_1 = 0.5, \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2}, \ \tau_1 = \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Wie groß sind nun die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$ und das Signal&amp;amp;ndash;zu&amp;amp;ndash;Verzerrungsverhäldnis $(\rm SDR)$ $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 2.24} \text{ und } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.5\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.059 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Nur Dämpfungsverzerrungen.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-zu-Verzerrung-Leistungsverhältnis}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 8.5}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(7)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Für den Kanal gelte nun $\alpha_1 = \alpha_2 = 0.5, \ \tau_1 \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{= 2\ {\rm ms} }, \  \tau_2  = 0.5\ {\rm ms}$. Wie groß sind nun $P_{\rm D}$ und $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm} P_{\rm D} = P_\varepsilon  \text{ bei bestmöglicher Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.82} \text{ und } \tau_{\rm M}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{  = 0.15\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.072 \ {\rm V^2}}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Nur Phasenverzerrungen.} \hspace{0.3cm}\text{Signal-zu-Verzerrung-Leistungsverhältnis}\ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D} = P_x/P_\varepsilon \approx 7}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Die Kanalparameter seien nun $\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_1 = 0.5} , \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\alpha_2 = 0.2} , \ \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_1= 0.5\ {\rm ms} }, \  \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_2  = 0.3\ {\rm ms} }$. Gibt es Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; und/oder Phasenverzerrungen? &lt;br /&gt;
:Wie kann man $y(t)$ annähern?  &#039;&#039;Hinweis:&#039;&#039; $\cos(3x) = 4 \cdot \cos^3(x) - 3\cdot \cos(x).$}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Es gibt sowohlDämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; als auch Phasenverzerrungen, weil }\alpha_1 \ne \alpha_2\text{ und }\tau_1 \ne \tau_2$. &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Es gilt }y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t)\ \Rightarrow \ y_1(t) = A_1 \cdot \alpha_1 \cdot \sin[2\pi f_1\  (t- 0.5\ \rm ms)] = -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos(2\pi  f_1 t)$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}  y_2(t) = \alpha_2 \cdot x_2(t- \tau_2) \text{ mit }x_2(t) = A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 30^\circ)] \approx  A_2 \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 1/36 \ \rm ms)]$&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y_2(t) = 0.12 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2\  (t- 0.328 \ {\rm ms})] \approx -0.12 \ { \rm V} \cdot \cos[2\pi f_2t] $.&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.85cm}  \Rightarrow \ y(t) = y_1(t) + y_2(t) \approx -0.4 \ {\rm V} \cdot [\cos(2\pi \cdot f_1\cdot  t) + 1/3 \cdot \cos(2\pi \cdot 3 f_1 \cdot t) =  -0.533 \ {\rm V} \cdot \cos^3(2\pi f_1  t)$.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(9)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Es gelten weiter die Parameter von &#039;&#039;&#039;(8)&#039;&#039;&#039;.  Wie groß ist die Verzerrungsleistung $P_{\rm D}$ and das Signal-zu-Verzerrungsleistungsverhältnis $\rho_{\rm D}$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Bestmögliche Anpassung:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{k_{\rm M} = 1.96} \text{, } \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\tau_{\rm M} = 1.65\ {\rm ms} }\text{:} \hspace{0.2cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{P_{\rm D} =  0.156 \ {\rm V^2} },\hspace{0.1cm}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{\rho_{\rm D}  = 0.500/0.156 \approx 3.2}$.&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(10)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp;Nun gelte $A_2 = 0$ sowie $A_1 = 1\ {\rm V}, \ f_1 = 1\ {\rm kHz}, \varphi_1 = 0^\circ$. Der Kanal sei ein &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Tiefpass erster Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt;  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$. &lt;br /&gt;
:Gibt es Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; und/oder Phasenverzerrungen? Wie groß sind die Kanalkoeffizienten $\alpha_1$ and $\tau_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Bei nur einer Frequenz gibt es weder Dämpfungs&amp;amp;ndash; noch Phasenverzerrungen.}$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Dämpfungsfaktor für }f_1=f_0\text{ und }N=1\text{:   }\alpha_1 =|H(f = f_1)| =  [1+( f_1/f_0)^2]^{-N/2} = 2^{-1/2}= 1/\sqrt{2}\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.707},$&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Phasenlaufzeit für}f_1=f_0\text{ und }N=1\text{:   }\tau_1 = N \cdot \arctan( f_1/f_0)/(2 \pi f_1)=\arctan( 1)/(2 \pi f_1) =1/(8f_1) \hspace{0.15cm}\underline{=0.125 \ \rm ms}.$&lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(11)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Wie ändern sich die Kanalparameter durch einen &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; gegenüber einem Tiefpass erster Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$?}} &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Es gilt }\hspace{0.15cm}\alpha_1 = 0.707^2 = 0.5$ und $\tau_1 = 2 \cdot 0.125  0.25 \ {\rm ms}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Das Signal }y(t)\text{  ist nur halb so groß wie }x(t)\text{ und läuft diesem nach: Aus dem Cosinusverlauf wird die Sinusfunktion}$. &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(12)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Welche Unterschiede ergeben sich bei einem &amp;lt;u&amp;gt;Hochpass zweiter Ordnung&amp;lt;/u&amp;gt; gegenüber einem Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Wegen }f_1 = f_0\text{ ergibt sich der gleiche Dämpfungsfaktor }\alpha_1 = 0.5\text{ und  es gilt }\tau_1 = -0.25 \ {\rm ms}\text{ Das heißt:}$.  &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Das Signal }y(t)\text{  ist auch hier nur halb so groß wie }x(t)\text{ und läuft diesem vor: Aus dem Cosinusverlauf wird die Minus&amp;amp;ndash;Sinusfunktion}$. &lt;br /&gt;
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&#039;&#039;&#039;(13)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; Welche Unterschiede erkennen Sie am Signalverlauf $y(t)$ zwischen dem Tiefpass zweiter Ordnung und dem Hochpass zweiter Ordnung  $(f_0 = 1\ {\rm kHz})$, wenn Sie vom Eingangssignal gemäß&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039; ausgehen und Sie die Frequenz $f_2$ kontinuierlich bis auf $10 \ \rm kHz$ erhöhen. }}&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Nach dem Tiefpass  wird der zweite Anteil mehr und mehr unterdrückt. Für }f_2 =  10 \ \rm kHz\text{ gilt: }y_{\rm LP}(t) \approx 0.8 \cdot x_1(t-0.3 \ \rm ms).$   &lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.0cm}\text{Nach dem Hochpass überwiegt dagegen der zweite Anteil. Für }f_2 =  10 \ \rm kHz\text{ gilt: }y_{\rm HP}(t) \approx 0.2 \cdot x_1(t+0.7 \ \rm ms) + x_2(t).$ .&lt;br /&gt;
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==Zur Handhabung des Applets==&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:Handhabung_verzerrungen.png|center]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(A)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Parametereingabe für das Eingangssignal $x(t)$ per Slider: Amplituden, Frequenzen, Phasenwerte&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(B)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Vorauswahl für die Kanalparameter: per Slider, Tiefpass oder Hochpass&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(C)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter per Slider: Dämpfungsfaktoren und Phasenlaufzeiten&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(D)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Kanalparameter für Hoch&amp;amp;ndash; und Tiefpass: Ordnung $n$, Grenzfrequenz $f_0$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(E)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Matching&amp;amp;ndash;Parameter $k_{\rm M}$ und $\varphi_{\rm M}$&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(F)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Auswahl der darzustellenden Signale: $x(t)$,  $y(t)$, $z(t)$, $\varepsilon(t)$, $\varepsilon^2(t)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(G)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Graphische Darstellung der Signale&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(H)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Eingabe der Zeit $t_*$ für die Numerikausgabe&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;( I )&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe der Signalwerte $x(t_*)$,  $y(t_*)$, $z(t_*)$  und $\varepsilon(t_*)$&lt;br /&gt;
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&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(J)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Numerikausgabe des Hauptergebnisses $P_\varepsilon$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(K)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Abspeichern und Zurückholen von Parametersätzen&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(L)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Bereich für die Versuchsdurchführung: Aufgabenauswahl, Aufgabenstellung und Musterlösung&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; &#039;&#039;&#039;(M)&#039;&#039;&#039; &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;nbsp; Variationsmöglichkeiten für die grafische Darstellung&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Zoom&amp;amp;ndash;Funktionen &amp;amp;bdquo;$+$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Vergrößern), &amp;amp;bdquo;$-$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Verkleinern) und $\rm o$ (Zurücksetzen)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Verschieben mit &amp;amp;bdquo;$\leftarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; (Ausschnitt nach links, Ordinate nach rechts),  &amp;amp;bdquo;$\uparrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; &amp;amp;bdquo;$\downarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo; und &amp;amp;bdquo;$\rightarrow$&amp;amp;rdquo;&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.5cm}$&#039;&#039;&#039;Andere Möglichkeiten&#039;&#039;&#039;:&lt;br /&gt;
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$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und Scrollen:  Zoomen im Koordinatensystem,&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.5cm}$Gedrückte Shifttaste und linke Maustaste: Verschieben des Koordinatensystems.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2005 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Bettina_Hirner_.28Diplomarbeit_LB_2005.29|Bettina Hirner]] im Rahmen ihrer Diplomarbeit mit &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde dieses Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] im Rahmen seiner Bachelorarbeit (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]]) neu gestaltet und erweitert.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[Category:Applets|^Verzerrungen^]]&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23687</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial and Poisson Distribution (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23687"/>
		<updated>2018-02-23T15:24:28Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* About the Authors */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet allows the calculation and graphic display of &lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ of a discrete random variable $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, that determine its &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) (graphic representation with Dirac functions ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ of the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)  $F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Discrete distributions are available in two sets of parameters:&lt;br /&gt;
* the Binomial distribution with the parameters $I$ and $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ possible values,&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with the parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
At the exercises below you are to compare: &lt;br /&gt;
* two Binomial distributions with different sets of parameters $I$ and $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* two Poisson distributions with different rates $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*a Binomial distribution with a Poisson distribution.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Binomial Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039; represents an important special case for the likelihood of occurence of a discrete random variable. For the derivation we assume, that $I$ binary and statistically independent random variables $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$  can take&lt;br /&gt;
*the value $1$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the value  $0$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Then the sum $z$, which is also a discrete random variable with the symbol stock $\{0, 1, 2, \text{...}\ , I\}$, is called binomially distributed:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i.$$ &lt;br /&gt;
The symbol scope is thus $M = I + 1.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies for $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu},$$&lt;br /&gt;
whereby the first term provides the number of combinations $(I \text{ over }\mu)$ : &lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies to a binomially distributed random variable of order $k$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From it we can derive the formulars for:&lt;br /&gt;
*the linear average:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the quadratic average: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the variance and dispersion: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma^2 = {m_2-m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Binomial distribution has a variety of uses in telecommunications as well as other disciplines :  &lt;br /&gt;
*It characterizes the distribution of rejected parts (Ausschussstücken) in the statistical quality control. &lt;br /&gt;
*The bit error rate of a digital transmission system gained through simulation is technically a binomially distributed random variable as well.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution can be used to calculate the residual error probability with blockwise coding, as the following example shows. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
When transfering  blocks of $I =5$ binary symbols through a channel, that &lt;br /&gt;
*distorts a symbol with probability $p = 0.1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 1$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*transfers the symbol undistorted with probability $1 - p = 0.9$  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the new random variable $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Error per block&amp;amp;rdquo;) calculates to: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$f$ can now assume integer values between $\mu = 0$ (no symbol is distorted) and $\mu = I$ (all five symbols are distorted). We describe the probability of  $\mu$ distortions as $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The case that all five symbols are transmitted correctly occurs with the probability of $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$. This also be concluded from the binomial formula for $μ = 0$ , taking into account the definition „10 over 0“ = 1. &lt;br /&gt;
*A singular error $(f = 1)$ occurs with the probability $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$. The first factor indicates, that there are $5\text{ über } 1 = 5$ possibilities to position the error. The other two factors take into account, that one symbol was distorted and the other four are intact, when $f =1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*For $f =2$ there are $5\text{ über } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$ combinations and you get a probability of $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If a block code can correct up to two errors, then the rest error probability is $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. &lt;br /&gt;
A second calculation option would be $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ with the approximation $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The mean number of errors in a block is $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$. The variance of the random variable $f$ is $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; is a special case of the Binomial distribution, where &lt;br /&gt;
*for one $I → ∞$ and $p →$ 0.&lt;br /&gt;
*Additionally, the product of $I · p = λ$ must be finite. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The parameter $λ$ indicates the average number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in a specified time unit and is called &#039;&#039;&#039;rate&#039;&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unlike with the Binomial distribution ($0 ≤ μ ≤ I$), here, the random variable can assume arbitrarily large non-negative integers, which means that the number of possible valuess is not countable. However, since no intermediate values ​​can occur, this too referred to as a &amp;quot;discrete distribution&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Taking into account the abovementioned limit transitions in the equation for the probabilities of the binomial distribution, the likelihood of occurence of the Poisson distributed random variable $z$ can be calculated through: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
After some algebraic transformations we obtain: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With the Poisson distribution, the average and the dispersion result directly from the corresponding equations of the binomial distribution through a twofold limit formation:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} I \cdot p= \lambda,$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can see that with the Poisson distribution $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ always holds. By contrast, $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$ always applies to the binomial distribution .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Moments of Poisson Distribution | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
We now compare&lt;br /&gt;
*the Binomial distribution with parameters $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ with&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Both distributions have the same linear average $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The dispersion of the Poisson distribution (marked red in the picture) is $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Binomial distribution (marked blue) is $σ = 1.2$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Poisson distribution is the result of a so-called &#039;&#039;Poisson point process&#039;&#039; which is often used as a model for a series of events that may occur at random times. Examples of such events are &lt;br /&gt;
*the failure of devices - an important task in reliability theory, &lt;br /&gt;
*the shot noise in the optical transmission, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the start of conversations at a telephone exchange(„Teletraffic engineering”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
A telephone exchange receives ninety requests per minute on average ($λ = 1.5 \text{ per second}$). The probabilities $p_µ$, that in an arbitrarily large time frame exactly $\mu$ requests are received, is: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The resulting numerical values are $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From this, additional parameters can be derived:&lt;br /&gt;
*the distance $τ$ between two requests satisfies the &amp;quot;exponential distribution&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
*The mean time span between two requests is ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Comparison Binomial vs. Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This segment deals with the similarities and differences between Binomial and Poisson distributions. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomial vs. Poisson distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; is used to describe stochastic events, that have a fixed period $T$. For example the period of an ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) with $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ is $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm &amp;amp;micro; s$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Binary events such as the error-free $(e_i = 0)$/ faulty $(e_i = 1)$ transmission of individual symbols only occur in this time frame.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution allows one to make statistical statements about the number of expected transmission erros in a period $T_{\rm I} = I · T$, as is shown in the time chart above(marked blue).&lt;br /&gt;
*For very large values of $I$ the Binomial distribution can be approximated by the &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
*if at the same time $I · p \gg 1$, then the Poisson distribution (as well as the Binomial distribution) turns into a discrete gaussian distribution according to the &#039;&#039;de Moivre-Laplace theorem&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; can also be used to make statements about the number of occuring binary events in a finite time interval.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
By assuming the same observation period $T_{\rm I}$ and increasing the number of partial periods $I$, the period $T$, in which a new event ($0$ or $1$) can occur, gets smaller and smaller. In the borderline case $T$ goes to zero. This means: &lt;br /&gt;
*With the Poisson distribution binary events can not only occur at certain given times, but at any time, which is illustrated in the time chart below. &lt;br /&gt;
*In order to average the same number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; as the Binomial distribution during the period $T_{\rm I}$ (in the example: six), the characteristic probability  $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ to the infinitesimal small time interval $T$ must go to zero&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The terms used in the description are&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Blue: Distribution function 1 (marked blue in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Red: Distribution function 2 (marked red in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^10=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Formular: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, or }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the differences in the linear average $m_1$ and the dispersion $\sigma$ between the two Binomial distributions?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blau}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Rot} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Dispersion:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blau} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 \le \sigma_{\rm Rot} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=15, p=0.3)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Poisson distribution $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What differences arise between both distributions regarding the average $m_1$ and variance $\sigma^2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Both distributions have the same average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blau}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Rot} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomial distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blue}^2 = m_\text{1, Blue} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} \le \text{Poisson distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Red}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt 0\hspace{0.5cm}\text{Approximation: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \frac{\lambda^{16} }{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what parameters result in a symmetric distribution around $m_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial distribution with }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetric around } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{etc.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{On the other hand the Poissonverteilung is never symmetric, since it extends infinitely!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by[[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo;  (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;quot;HTML5&amp;amp;quot; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] &amp;amp;ndash; Mitarbeiter der Professur &amp;amp;bdquo;Leitungsgebundene Übertragungstechnik&amp;amp;bdquo;) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23686</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial and Poisson Distribution (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23686"/>
		<updated>2018-02-23T15:24:03Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* About the Authors */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet allows the calculation and graphic display of &lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ of a discrete random variable $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, that determine its &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) (graphic representation with Dirac functions ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ of the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)  $F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Discrete distributions are available in two sets of parameters:&lt;br /&gt;
* the Binomial distribution with the parameters $I$ and $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ possible values,&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with the parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
At the exercises below you are to compare: &lt;br /&gt;
* two Binomial distributions with different sets of parameters $I$ and $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* two Poisson distributions with different rates $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*a Binomial distribution with a Poisson distribution.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Binomial Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039; represents an important special case for the likelihood of occurence of a discrete random variable. For the derivation we assume, that $I$ binary and statistically independent random variables $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$  can take&lt;br /&gt;
*the value $1$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the value  $0$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Then the sum $z$, which is also a discrete random variable with the symbol stock $\{0, 1, 2, \text{...}\ , I\}$, is called binomially distributed:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i.$$ &lt;br /&gt;
The symbol scope is thus $M = I + 1.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies for $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu},$$&lt;br /&gt;
whereby the first term provides the number of combinations $(I \text{ over }\mu)$ : &lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies to a binomially distributed random variable of order $k$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From it we can derive the formulars for:&lt;br /&gt;
*the linear average:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the quadratic average: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the variance and dispersion: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma^2 = {m_2-m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Binomial distribution has a variety of uses in telecommunications as well as other disciplines :  &lt;br /&gt;
*It characterizes the distribution of rejected parts (Ausschussstücken) in the statistical quality control. &lt;br /&gt;
*The bit error rate of a digital transmission system gained through simulation is technically a binomially distributed random variable as well.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution can be used to calculate the residual error probability with blockwise coding, as the following example shows. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
When transfering  blocks of $I =5$ binary symbols through a channel, that &lt;br /&gt;
*distorts a symbol with probability $p = 0.1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 1$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*transfers the symbol undistorted with probability $1 - p = 0.9$  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the new random variable $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Error per block&amp;amp;rdquo;) calculates to: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$f$ can now assume integer values between $\mu = 0$ (no symbol is distorted) and $\mu = I$ (all five symbols are distorted). We describe the probability of  $\mu$ distortions as $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The case that all five symbols are transmitted correctly occurs with the probability of $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$. This also be concluded from the binomial formula for $μ = 0$ , taking into account the definition „10 over 0“ = 1. &lt;br /&gt;
*A singular error $(f = 1)$ occurs with the probability $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$. The first factor indicates, that there are $5\text{ über } 1 = 5$ possibilities to position the error. The other two factors take into account, that one symbol was distorted and the other four are intact, when $f =1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*For $f =2$ there are $5\text{ über } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$ combinations and you get a probability of $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If a block code can correct up to two errors, then the rest error probability is $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. &lt;br /&gt;
A second calculation option would be $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ with the approximation $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The mean number of errors in a block is $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$. The variance of the random variable $f$ is $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; is a special case of the Binomial distribution, where &lt;br /&gt;
*for one $I → ∞$ and $p →$ 0.&lt;br /&gt;
*Additionally, the product of $I · p = λ$ must be finite. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The parameter $λ$ indicates the average number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in a specified time unit and is called &#039;&#039;&#039;rate&#039;&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unlike with the Binomial distribution ($0 ≤ μ ≤ I$), here, the random variable can assume arbitrarily large non-negative integers, which means that the number of possible valuess is not countable. However, since no intermediate values ​​can occur, this too referred to as a &amp;quot;discrete distribution&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Taking into account the abovementioned limit transitions in the equation for the probabilities of the binomial distribution, the likelihood of occurence of the Poisson distributed random variable $z$ can be calculated through: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
After some algebraic transformations we obtain: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With the Poisson distribution, the average and the dispersion result directly from the corresponding equations of the binomial distribution through a twofold limit formation:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} I \cdot p= \lambda,$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can see that with the Poisson distribution $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ always holds. By contrast, $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$ always applies to the binomial distribution .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Moments of Poisson Distribution | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
We now compare&lt;br /&gt;
*the Binomial distribution with parameters $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ with&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Both distributions have the same linear average $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The dispersion of the Poisson distribution (marked red in the picture) is $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Binomial distribution (marked blue) is $σ = 1.2$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Poisson distribution is the result of a so-called &#039;&#039;Poisson point process&#039;&#039; which is often used as a model for a series of events that may occur at random times. Examples of such events are &lt;br /&gt;
*the failure of devices - an important task in reliability theory, &lt;br /&gt;
*the shot noise in the optical transmission, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the start of conversations at a telephone exchange(„Teletraffic engineering”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
A telephone exchange receives ninety requests per minute on average ($λ = 1.5 \text{ per second}$). The probabilities $p_µ$, that in an arbitrarily large time frame exactly $\mu$ requests are received, is: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The resulting numerical values are $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From this, additional parameters can be derived:&lt;br /&gt;
*the distance $τ$ between two requests satisfies the &amp;quot;exponential distribution&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
*The mean time span between two requests is ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Comparison Binomial vs. Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This segment deals with the similarities and differences between Binomial and Poisson distributions. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomial vs. Poisson distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; is used to describe stochastic events, that have a fixed period $T$. For example the period of an ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) with $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ is $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm &amp;amp;micro; s$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Binary events such as the error-free $(e_i = 0)$/ faulty $(e_i = 1)$ transmission of individual symbols only occur in this time frame.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution allows one to make statistical statements about the number of expected transmission erros in a period $T_{\rm I} = I · T$, as is shown in the time chart above(marked blue).&lt;br /&gt;
*For very large values of $I$ the Binomial distribution can be approximated by the &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
*if at the same time $I · p \gg 1$, then the Poisson distribution (as well as the Binomial distribution) turns into a discrete gaussian distribution according to the &#039;&#039;de Moivre-Laplace theorem&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; can also be used to make statements about the number of occuring binary events in a finite time interval.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
By assuming the same observation period $T_{\rm I}$ and increasing the number of partial periods $I$, the period $T$, in which a new event ($0$ or $1$) can occur, gets smaller and smaller. In the borderline case $T$ goes to zero. This means: &lt;br /&gt;
*With the Poisson distribution binary events can not only occur at certain given times, but at any time, which is illustrated in the time chart below. &lt;br /&gt;
*In order to average the same number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; as the Binomial distribution during the period $T_{\rm I}$ (in the example: six), the characteristic probability  $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ to the infinitesimal small time interval $T$ must go to zero&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The terms used in the description are&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Blue: Distribution function 1 (marked blue in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Red: Distribution function 2 (marked red in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^10=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Formular: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, or }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the differences in the linear average $m_1$ and the dispersion $\sigma$ between the two Binomial distributions?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blau}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Rot} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Dispersion:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blau} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 \le \sigma_{\rm Rot} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=15, p=0.3)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Poisson distribution $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What differences arise between both distributions regarding the average $m_1$ and variance $\sigma^2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Both distributions have the same average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blau}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Rot} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomial distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blue}^2 = m_\text{1, Blue} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} \le \text{Poisson distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Red}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt 0\hspace{0.5cm}\text{Approximation: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \frac{\lambda^{16} }{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what parameters result in a symmetric distribution around $m_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial distribution with }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetric around } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{etc.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{On the other hand the Poissonverteilung is never symmetric, since it extends infinitely!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by[[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo;  (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to &amp;amp;nquot;HTML5&amp;amp;nquot; by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] &amp;amp;ndash; Mitarbeiter der Professur &amp;amp;bdquo;Leitungsgebundene Übertragungstechnik&amp;amp;bdquo;) .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23685</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial and Poisson Distribution (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23685"/>
		<updated>2018-02-23T15:23:14Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* About the Authors */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet allows the calculation and graphic display of &lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ of a discrete random variable $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, that determine its &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) (graphic representation with Dirac functions ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ of the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)  $F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Discrete distributions are available in two sets of parameters:&lt;br /&gt;
* the Binomial distribution with the parameters $I$ and $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ possible values,&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with the parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
At the exercises below you are to compare: &lt;br /&gt;
* two Binomial distributions with different sets of parameters $I$ and $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* two Poisson distributions with different rates $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*a Binomial distribution with a Poisson distribution.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Binomial Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039; represents an important special case for the likelihood of occurence of a discrete random variable. For the derivation we assume, that $I$ binary and statistically independent random variables $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$  can take&lt;br /&gt;
*the value $1$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the value  $0$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Then the sum $z$, which is also a discrete random variable with the symbol stock $\{0, 1, 2, \text{...}\ , I\}$, is called binomially distributed:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i.$$ &lt;br /&gt;
The symbol scope is thus $M = I + 1.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies for $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu},$$&lt;br /&gt;
whereby the first term provides the number of combinations $(I \text{ over }\mu)$ : &lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies to a binomially distributed random variable of order $k$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From it we can derive the formulars for:&lt;br /&gt;
*the linear average:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the quadratic average: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the variance and dispersion: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma^2 = {m_2-m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Binomial distribution has a variety of uses in telecommunications as well as other disciplines :  &lt;br /&gt;
*It characterizes the distribution of rejected parts (Ausschussstücken) in the statistical quality control. &lt;br /&gt;
*The bit error rate of a digital transmission system gained through simulation is technically a binomially distributed random variable as well.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution can be used to calculate the residual error probability with blockwise coding, as the following example shows. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
When transfering  blocks of $I =5$ binary symbols through a channel, that &lt;br /&gt;
*distorts a symbol with probability $p = 0.1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 1$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*transfers the symbol undistorted with probability $1 - p = 0.9$  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the new random variable $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Error per block&amp;amp;rdquo;) calculates to: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$f$ can now assume integer values between $\mu = 0$ (no symbol is distorted) and $\mu = I$ (all five symbols are distorted). We describe the probability of  $\mu$ distortions as $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The case that all five symbols are transmitted correctly occurs with the probability of $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$. This also be concluded from the binomial formula for $μ = 0$ , taking into account the definition „10 over 0“ = 1. &lt;br /&gt;
*A singular error $(f = 1)$ occurs with the probability $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$. The first factor indicates, that there are $5\text{ über } 1 = 5$ possibilities to position the error. The other two factors take into account, that one symbol was distorted and the other four are intact, when $f =1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*For $f =2$ there are $5\text{ über } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$ combinations and you get a probability of $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If a block code can correct up to two errors, then the rest error probability is $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. &lt;br /&gt;
A second calculation option would be $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ with the approximation $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The mean number of errors in a block is $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$. The variance of the random variable $f$ is $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; is a special case of the Binomial distribution, where &lt;br /&gt;
*for one $I → ∞$ and $p →$ 0.&lt;br /&gt;
*Additionally, the product of $I · p = λ$ must be finite. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The parameter $λ$ indicates the average number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in a specified time unit and is called &#039;&#039;&#039;rate&#039;&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unlike with the Binomial distribution ($0 ≤ μ ≤ I$), here, the random variable can assume arbitrarily large non-negative integers, which means that the number of possible valuess is not countable. However, since no intermediate values ​​can occur, this too referred to as a &amp;quot;discrete distribution&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Taking into account the abovementioned limit transitions in the equation for the probabilities of the binomial distribution, the likelihood of occurence of the Poisson distributed random variable $z$ can be calculated through: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
After some algebraic transformations we obtain: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With the Poisson distribution, the average and the dispersion result directly from the corresponding equations of the binomial distribution through a twofold limit formation:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} I \cdot p= \lambda,$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can see that with the Poisson distribution $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ always holds. By contrast, $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$ always applies to the binomial distribution .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Moments of Poisson Distribution | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
We now compare&lt;br /&gt;
*the Binomial distribution with parameters $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ with&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Both distributions have the same linear average $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The dispersion of the Poisson distribution (marked red in the picture) is $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Binomial distribution (marked blue) is $σ = 1.2$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Poisson distribution is the result of a so-called &#039;&#039;Poisson point process&#039;&#039; which is often used as a model for a series of events that may occur at random times. Examples of such events are &lt;br /&gt;
*the failure of devices - an important task in reliability theory, &lt;br /&gt;
*the shot noise in the optical transmission, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the start of conversations at a telephone exchange(„Teletraffic engineering”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
A telephone exchange receives ninety requests per minute on average ($λ = 1.5 \text{ per second}$). The probabilities $p_µ$, that in an arbitrarily large time frame exactly $\mu$ requests are received, is: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The resulting numerical values are $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From this, additional parameters can be derived:&lt;br /&gt;
*the distance $τ$ between two requests satisfies the &amp;quot;exponential distribution&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
*The mean time span between two requests is ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Comparison Binomial vs. Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This segment deals with the similarities and differences between Binomial and Poisson distributions. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomial vs. Poisson distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; is used to describe stochastic events, that have a fixed period $T$. For example the period of an ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) with $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ is $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm &amp;amp;micro; s$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Binary events such as the error-free $(e_i = 0)$/ faulty $(e_i = 1)$ transmission of individual symbols only occur in this time frame.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution allows one to make statistical statements about the number of expected transmission erros in a period $T_{\rm I} = I · T$, as is shown in the time chart above(marked blue).&lt;br /&gt;
*For very large values of $I$ the Binomial distribution can be approximated by the &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
*if at the same time $I · p \gg 1$, then the Poisson distribution (as well as the Binomial distribution) turns into a discrete gaussian distribution according to the &#039;&#039;de Moivre-Laplace theorem&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; can also be used to make statements about the number of occuring binary events in a finite time interval.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
By assuming the same observation period $T_{\rm I}$ and increasing the number of partial periods $I$, the period $T$, in which a new event ($0$ or $1$) can occur, gets smaller and smaller. In the borderline case $T$ goes to zero. This means: &lt;br /&gt;
*With the Poisson distribution binary events can not only occur at certain given times, but at any time, which is illustrated in the time chart below. &lt;br /&gt;
*In order to average the same number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; as the Binomial distribution during the period $T_{\rm I}$ (in the example: six), the characteristic probability  $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ to the infinitesimal small time interval $T$ must go to zero&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The terms used in the description are&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Blue: Distribution function 1 (marked blue in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Red: Distribution function 2 (marked red in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^10=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Formular: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, or }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the differences in the linear average $m_1$ and the dispersion $\sigma$ between the two Binomial distributions?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blau}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Rot} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Dispersion:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blau} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 \le \sigma_{\rm Rot} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=15, p=0.3)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Poisson distribution $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What differences arise between both distributions regarding the average $m_1$ and variance $\sigma^2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Both distributions have the same average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blau}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Rot} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomial distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blue}^2 = m_\text{1, Blue} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} \le \text{Poisson distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Red}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt 0\hspace{0.5cm}\text{Approximation: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \frac{\lambda^{16} }{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what parameters result in a symmetric distribution around $m_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial distribution with }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetric around } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{etc.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{On the other hand the Poissonverteilung is never symmetric, since it extends infinitely!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technische Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by[[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo;  (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to „HTML5” by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] &amp;amp;ndash; Mitarbeiter der Professur &amp;amp;bdquo;Leitungsgebundene Übertragungstechnik&amp;amp;bdquo;)  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23684</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial and Poisson Distribution (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23684"/>
		<updated>2018-02-23T15:21:58Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Über die Autoren */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet allows the calculation and graphic display of &lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ of a discrete random variable $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, that determine its &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) (graphic representation with Dirac functions ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ of the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)  $F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Discrete distributions are available in two sets of parameters:&lt;br /&gt;
* the Binomial distribution with the parameters $I$ and $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ possible values,&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with the parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
At the exercises below you are to compare: &lt;br /&gt;
* two Binomial distributions with different sets of parameters $I$ and $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* two Poisson distributions with different rates $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*a Binomial distribution with a Poisson distribution.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Binomial Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039; represents an important special case for the likelihood of occurence of a discrete random variable. For the derivation we assume, that $I$ binary and statistically independent random variables $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$  can take&lt;br /&gt;
*the value $1$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the value  $0$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Then the sum $z$, which is also a discrete random variable with the symbol stock $\{0, 1, 2, \text{...}\ , I\}$, is called binomially distributed:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i.$$ &lt;br /&gt;
The symbol scope is thus $M = I + 1.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies for $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu},$$&lt;br /&gt;
whereby the first term provides the number of combinations $(I \text{ over }\mu)$ : &lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies to a binomially distributed random variable of order $k$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From it we can derive the formulars for:&lt;br /&gt;
*the linear average:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the quadratic average: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the variance and dispersion: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma^2 = {m_2-m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Binomial distribution has a variety of uses in telecommunications as well as other disciplines :  &lt;br /&gt;
*It characterizes the distribution of rejected parts (Ausschussstücken) in the statistical quality control. &lt;br /&gt;
*The bit error rate of a digital transmission system gained through simulation is technically a binomially distributed random variable as well.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution can be used to calculate the residual error probability with blockwise coding, as the following example shows. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
When transfering  blocks of $I =5$ binary symbols through a channel, that &lt;br /&gt;
*distorts a symbol with probability $p = 0.1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 1$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*transfers the symbol undistorted with probability $1 - p = 0.9$  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the new random variable $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Error per block&amp;amp;rdquo;) calculates to: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$f$ can now assume integer values between $\mu = 0$ (no symbol is distorted) and $\mu = I$ (all five symbols are distorted). We describe the probability of  $\mu$ distortions as $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The case that all five symbols are transmitted correctly occurs with the probability of $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$. This also be concluded from the binomial formula for $μ = 0$ , taking into account the definition „10 over 0“ = 1. &lt;br /&gt;
*A singular error $(f = 1)$ occurs with the probability $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$. The first factor indicates, that there are $5\text{ über } 1 = 5$ possibilities to position the error. The other two factors take into account, that one symbol was distorted and the other four are intact, when $f =1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*For $f =2$ there are $5\text{ über } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$ combinations and you get a probability of $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If a block code can correct up to two errors, then the rest error probability is $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. &lt;br /&gt;
A second calculation option would be $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ with the approximation $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The mean number of errors in a block is $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$. The variance of the random variable $f$ is $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; is a special case of the Binomial distribution, where &lt;br /&gt;
*for one $I → ∞$ and $p →$ 0.&lt;br /&gt;
*Additionally, the product of $I · p = λ$ must be finite. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The parameter $λ$ indicates the average number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in a specified time unit and is called &#039;&#039;&#039;rate&#039;&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unlike with the Binomial distribution ($0 ≤ μ ≤ I$), here, the random variable can assume arbitrarily large non-negative integers, which means that the number of possible valuess is not countable. However, since no intermediate values ​​can occur, this too referred to as a &amp;quot;discrete distribution&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Taking into account the abovementioned limit transitions in the equation for the probabilities of the binomial distribution, the likelihood of occurence of the Poisson distributed random variable $z$ can be calculated through: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
After some algebraic transformations we obtain: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With the Poisson distribution, the average and the dispersion result directly from the corresponding equations of the binomial distribution through a twofold limit formation:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} I \cdot p= \lambda,$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can see that with the Poisson distribution $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ always holds. By contrast, $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$ always applies to the binomial distribution .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Moments of Poisson Distribution | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
We now compare&lt;br /&gt;
*the Binomial distribution with parameters $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ with&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Both distributions have the same linear average $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The dispersion of the Poisson distribution (marked red in the picture) is $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Binomial distribution (marked blue) is $σ = 1.2$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Poisson distribution is the result of a so-called &#039;&#039;Poisson point process&#039;&#039; which is often used as a model for a series of events that may occur at random times. Examples of such events are &lt;br /&gt;
*the failure of devices - an important task in reliability theory, &lt;br /&gt;
*the shot noise in the optical transmission, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the start of conversations at a telephone exchange(„Teletraffic engineering”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
A telephone exchange receives ninety requests per minute on average ($λ = 1.5 \text{ per second}$). The probabilities $p_µ$, that in an arbitrarily large time frame exactly $\mu$ requests are received, is: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The resulting numerical values are $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From this, additional parameters can be derived:&lt;br /&gt;
*the distance $τ$ between two requests satisfies the &amp;quot;exponential distribution&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
*The mean time span between two requests is ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Comparison Binomial vs. Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This segment deals with the similarities and differences between Binomial and Poisson distributions. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomial vs. Poisson distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; is used to describe stochastic events, that have a fixed period $T$. For example the period of an ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) with $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ is $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm &amp;amp;micro; s$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Binary events such as the error-free $(e_i = 0)$/ faulty $(e_i = 1)$ transmission of individual symbols only occur in this time frame.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution allows one to make statistical statements about the number of expected transmission erros in a period $T_{\rm I} = I · T$, as is shown in the time chart above(marked blue).&lt;br /&gt;
*For very large values of $I$ the Binomial distribution can be approximated by the &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
*if at the same time $I · p \gg 1$, then the Poisson distribution (as well as the Binomial distribution) turns into a discrete gaussian distribution according to the &#039;&#039;de Moivre-Laplace theorem&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; can also be used to make statements about the number of occuring binary events in a finite time interval.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
By assuming the same observation period $T_{\rm I}$ and increasing the number of partial periods $I$, the period $T$, in which a new event ($0$ or $1$) can occur, gets smaller and smaller. In the borderline case $T$ goes to zero. This means: &lt;br /&gt;
*With the Poisson distribution binary events can not only occur at certain given times, but at any time, which is illustrated in the time chart below. &lt;br /&gt;
*In order to average the same number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; as the Binomial distribution during the period $T_{\rm I}$ (in the example: six), the characteristic probability  $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ to the infinitesimal small time interval $T$ must go to zero&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The terms used in the description are&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Blue: Distribution function 1 (marked blue in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Red: Distribution function 2 (marked red in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^10=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Formular: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, or }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the differences in the linear average $m_1$ and the dispersion $\sigma$ between the two Binomial distributions?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blau}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Rot} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Dispersion:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blau} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 \le \sigma_{\rm Rot} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=15, p=0.3)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Poisson distribution $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What differences arise between both distributions regarding the average $m_1$ and variance $\sigma^2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Both distributions have the same average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blau}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Rot} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomial distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blue}^2 = m_\text{1, Blue} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} \le \text{Poisson distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Red}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt 0\hspace{0.5cm}\text{Approximation: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \frac{\lambda^{16} }{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what parameters result in a symmetric distribution around $m_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial distribution with }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetric around } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{etc.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{On the other hand the Poissonverteilung is never symmetric, since it extends infinitely!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==About the Authors==&lt;br /&gt;
This interactive calculation was designed and realized at the [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] of the [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München]. &lt;br /&gt;
*The original version was created in 2005 by[[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] as part of her Diploma thesis using &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo;  (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*In 2018 this Applet was redesigned and updated to „HTML5” by [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] as part of his Bachelor&#039;s thesis (Supervisor: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] &amp;amp;ndash; Mitarbeiter der Professur &amp;amp;bdquo;Leitungsgebundene Übertragungstechnik&amp;amp;bdquo;)  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
	<entry>
		<id>https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23683</id>
		<title>Applets:Binomial and Poisson Distribution (Applet)</title>
		<link rel="alternate" type="text/html" href="https://en.lntwww.lnt.ei.tum.de/index.php?title=Applets:Binomial_and_Poisson_Distribution_(Applet)&amp;diff=23683"/>
		<updated>2018-02-23T15:15:23Z</updated>

		<summary type="html">&lt;p&gt;Jimmy: /* Exercises */&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;hr /&gt;
&lt;div&gt;==Applet Description==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This applet allows the calculation and graphic display of &lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=\mu)$ of a discrete random variable $z \in \{\mu \} =  \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...} \}$, that determine its &#039;&#039;Probability Density Function&#039;&#039; (PDF) (graphic representation with Dirac functions ${\rm \delta}( z-\mu)$):&lt;br /&gt;
:$$f_{z}(z)=\sum_{\mu=1}^{M}{\rm Pr}(z=\mu)\cdot {\rm \delta}( z-\mu),$$&lt;br /&gt;
*the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z \le \mu)$ of the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)  $F_{z}(\mu)={\rm Pr}(z\le\mu)$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Discrete distributions are available in two sets of parameters:&lt;br /&gt;
* the Binomial distribution with the parameters $I$ and $p$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, \text{...} \ , I \}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M = I+1$ possible values,&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with the parameter $\lambda$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $z \in   \{0, 1, 2, 3, \text{...}\}$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; $M \to \infty$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
At the exercises below you are to compare: &lt;br /&gt;
* two Binomial distributions with different sets of parameters $I$ and $p$, &lt;br /&gt;
* two Poisson distributions with different rates $\lambda$, &lt;br /&gt;
*a Binomial distribution with a Poisson distribution.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Theoretical Background==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Binomial Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039; represents an important special case for the likelihood of occurence of a discrete random variable. For the derivation we assume, that $I$ binary and statistically independent random variables $b_i \in \{0, 1 \}$  can take&lt;br /&gt;
*the value $1$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 1) = p$, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the value  $0$ with the probability ${\rm Pr}(b_i = 0) = 1-p$. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Then the sum $z$, which is also a discrete random variable with the symbol stock $\{0, 1, 2, \text{...}\ , I\}$, is called binomially distributed:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$z=\sum_{i=1}^{I}b_i.$$ &lt;br /&gt;
The symbol scope is thus $M = I + 1.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies for $μ = 0, \text{...}\ , I$:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr}(z=\mu)={I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu},$$&lt;br /&gt;
whereby the first term provides the number of combinations $(I \text{ over }\mu)$ : &lt;br /&gt;
:$${I \choose \mu}=\frac{I !}{\mu !\cdot (I-\mu) !}=\frac{ {I\cdot (I- 1) \cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot (I-\mu+ 1)} }{ 1\cdot  2\cdot \ \cdots \ \cdot   \mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Following formular applies to a binomially distributed random variable of order $k$: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_k={\rm E}[z^k]=\sum_{\mu={\rm 0}}^{I}\mu^k\cdot{I \choose \mu}\cdot p^\mu\cdot ({\rm 1}-p)^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From it we can derive the formulars for:&lt;br /&gt;
*the linear average:  &amp;amp;nbsp; $m_1 = I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the quadratic average: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $m_2 = (I^2-I)\cdot p^2+I\cdot p,$&lt;br /&gt;
*the variance and dispersion: &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma^2 = {m_2-m_1^2} = {I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)} \hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow \hspace{0.3cm}&lt;br /&gt;
\sigma =  \sqrt{I \cdot p\cdot (1-p)}.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Binomial Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Binomial distribution has a variety of uses in telecommunications as well as other disciplines :  &lt;br /&gt;
*It characterizes the distribution of rejected parts (Ausschussstücken) in the statistical quality control. &lt;br /&gt;
*The bit error rate of a digital transmission system gained through simulation is technically a binomially distributed random variable as well.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution can be used to calculate the residual error probability with blockwise coding, as the following example shows. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 1:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
When transfering  blocks of $I =5$ binary symbols through a channel, that &lt;br /&gt;
*distorts a symbol with probability $p = 0.1$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 1$, and &lt;br /&gt;
*transfers the symbol undistorted with probability $1 - p = 0.9$  &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp; Random variable $e_i = 0$,&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
the new random variable $f$  (&amp;amp;bdquo;Error per block&amp;amp;rdquo;) calculates to: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$f=\sum_{i=1}^{I}e_i.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$f$ can now assume integer values between $\mu = 0$ (no symbol is distorted) and $\mu = I$ (all five symbols are distorted). We describe the probability of  $\mu$ distortions as $p_μ = {\rm Pr}(f = \mu)$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The case that all five symbols are transmitted correctly occurs with the probability of $p_0 = 0.9^{5} ≈ 0.5905$. This also be concluded from the binomial formula for $μ = 0$ , taking into account the definition „10 over 0“ = 1. &lt;br /&gt;
*A singular error $(f = 1)$ occurs with the probability $p_1 = 5\cdot 0.1\cdot 0.9^4\approx 0.3281$. The first factor indicates, that there are $5\text{ über } 1 = 5$ possibilities to position the error. The other two factors take into account, that one symbol was distorted and the other four are intact, when $f =1$. &lt;br /&gt;
*For $f =2$ there are $5\text{ über } 2 = (5 \cdot 4)/(1 \cdot 2) = 10$ combinations and you get a probability of $p_2 = 10\cdot 0.1^2\cdot 0.9^3\approx 0.0729$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
If a block code can correct up to two errors, then the rest error probability is $p_{\rm R} =  1-p_{\rm 0}-p_{\rm 1}-p_{\rm 2}\approx 0.85\%$. &lt;br /&gt;
A second calculation option would be $p_{\rm R} =  p_{3}  + p_{4} + p_{5}$ with the approximation $p_{\rm R} \approx p_{3} = 0.81\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The mean number of errors in a block is $m_f = 5 \cdot 0.1 = 0.5$. The variance of the random variable $f$ is $\sigma_f^2 = 5 \cdot 0.1 \cdot 0.9= 0.45$ &amp;amp;nbsp; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;nbsp;  $\sigma_f \approx 0.671.$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Properties of Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039; is a special case of the Binomial distribution, where &lt;br /&gt;
*for one $I → ∞$ and $p →$ 0.&lt;br /&gt;
*Additionally, the product of $I · p = λ$ must be finite. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The parameter $λ$ indicates the average number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; in a specified time unit and is called &#039;&#039;&#039;rate&#039;&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Unlike with the Binomial distribution ($0 ≤ μ ≤ I$), here, the random variable can assume arbitrarily large non-negative integers, which means that the number of possible valuess is not countable. However, since no intermediate values ​​can occur, this too referred to as a &amp;quot;discrete distribution&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Probabilities of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
Taking into account the abovementioned limit transitions in the equation for the probabilities of the binomial distribution, the likelihood of occurence of the Poisson distributed random variable $z$ can be calculated through: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = {\rm Pr} ( z=\mu ) = \lim_{I\to\infty} \cdot \frac{I !}{\mu ! \cdot (I-\mu  )!} \cdot (\frac{\lambda}{I}  )^\mu \cdot  ( 1-\frac{\lambda}{I})^{I-\mu}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
After some algebraic transformations we obtain: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{ \lambda^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Moments of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
With the Poisson distribution, the average and the dispersion result directly from the corresponding equations of the binomial distribution through a twofold limit formation:&lt;br /&gt;
:$$m_1 =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} I \cdot p= \lambda,$$&lt;br /&gt;
:$$\sigma =\lim_{\left.{I\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm}\infty \atop {p\hspace{0.05cm}\to\hspace{0.05cm} 0}}\right.} \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt {\lambda}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
We can see that with the Poisson distribution $\sigma^2 = m_1 = \lambda$ always holds. By contrast, $\sigma^2 &amp;lt; m_1$ always applies to the binomial distribution .&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File: P_ID616__Sto_T_2_4_S2neu.png |frame| Moments of Poisson Distribution | rechts]]&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 2:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
We now compare&lt;br /&gt;
*the Binomial distribution with parameters $I =6$ und $p = 0.4$ with&lt;br /&gt;
*the Poisson distribution with $λ = 2.4$: &lt;br /&gt;
*Both distributions have the same linear average $m_1 = 2.4$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The dispersion of the Poisson distribution (marked red in the picture) is $σ ≈ 1.55$. &lt;br /&gt;
*The standard deviation of the Binomial distribution (marked blue) is $σ = 1.2$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;Applications of Poisson Distribution&#039;&#039;&#039;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The Poisson distribution is the result of a so-called &#039;&#039;Poisson point process&#039;&#039; which is often used as a model for a series of events that may occur at random times. Examples of such events are &lt;br /&gt;
*the failure of devices - an important task in reliability theory, &lt;br /&gt;
*the shot noise in the optical transmission, and&lt;br /&gt;
*the start of conversations at a telephone exchange(„Teletraffic engineering”). &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{GraueBox|TEXT=  &lt;br /&gt;
$\text{Example 3:}$&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
A telephone exchange receives ninety requests per minute on average ($λ = 1.5 \text{ per second}$). The probabilities $p_µ$, that in an arbitrarily large time frame exactly $\mu$ requests are received, is: &lt;br /&gt;
:$$p_\mu = \frac{1.5^\mu}{\mu!}\cdot {\rm e}^{-1.5}.$$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The resulting numerical values are $p_0 = 0.223$, $p_1 = 0.335$, $p_2 = 0.251$, etc. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
From this, additional parameters can be derived:&lt;br /&gt;
*the distance $τ$ between two requests satisfies the &amp;quot;exponential distribution&amp;quot;,&lt;br /&gt;
*The mean time span between two requests is ${\rm E}[τ] = 1/λ ≈ 0.667 \ \rm s$.}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
===Comparison Binomial vs. Poisson Distribution===&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
This segment deals with the similarities and differences between Binomial and Poisson distributions. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[File:  P_ID60__Sto_T_2_4_S3_neu.png |frame| Binomial vs. Poisson distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Binomial distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; is used to describe stochastic events, that have a fixed period $T$. For example the period of an ISDN  (&#039;&#039;Integrated Services Digital Network&#039;&#039;) with $64 \ \rm kbit/s$ is $T \approx 15.6 \ \rm &amp;amp;micro; s$. &lt;br /&gt;
*Binary events such as the error-free $(e_i = 0)$/ faulty $(e_i = 1)$ transmission of individual symbols only occur in this time frame.&lt;br /&gt;
*The binomial distribution allows one to make statistical statements about the number of expected transmission erros in a period $T_{\rm I} = I · T$, as is shown in the time chart above(marked blue).&lt;br /&gt;
*For very large values of $I$ the Binomial distribution can be approximated by the &#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;. &lt;br /&gt;
*if at the same time $I · p \gg 1$, then the Poisson distribution (as well as the Binomial distribution) turns into a discrete gaussian distribution according to the &#039;&#039;de Moivre-Laplace theorem&#039;&#039;.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
The &#039;&#039;&#039;Poisson distribution&#039;&#039;&#039; can also be used to make statements about the number of occuring binary events in a finite time interval.&lt;br /&gt;
 &lt;br /&gt;
By assuming the same observation period $T_{\rm I}$ and increasing the number of partial periods $I$, the period $T$, in which a new event ($0$ or $1$) can occur, gets smaller and smaller. In the borderline case $T$ goes to zero. This means: &lt;br /&gt;
*With the Poisson distribution binary events can not only occur at certain given times, but at any time, which is illustrated in the time chart below. &lt;br /&gt;
*In order to average the same number of &amp;quot;ones&amp;quot; as the Binomial distribution during the period $T_{\rm I}$ (in the example: six), the characteristic probability  $p = {\rm Pr}( e_i = 1)$ to the infinitesimal small time interval $T$ must go to zero&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Exercises==&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The terms used in the description are&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Blue: Distribution function 1 (marked blue in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
*Red: Distribution function 2 (marked red in applet)&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=5, \ p=0.4)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=10, \ p=0.2)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z=0)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z=1)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.6^5=7.78\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.4 \cdot 0.6^4=25.92\%;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(z=0)=0.8^10=10.74\%, \hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z=1)=0.2 \cdot 0.8^9=26.84\%.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(2)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5)$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Formular: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z=3) + {\rm Pr}(z=4) + {\rm Pr}(z=5)\text{, or }&lt;br /&gt;
{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = {\rm Pr}(z \le 5) - {\rm Pr}(z \le 2)$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Blue: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2304+ 0.0768 + 0.0102 =1 - 0.6826 = 0.3174;$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Red: }{\rm Pr}(3 \le z \le 5) = 0.2013 + 0.0881 + 0.0264 = 0.9936 - 0.6778 = 0.3158$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(3)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(1)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the differences in the linear average $m_1$ and the dispersion $\sigma$ between the two Binomial distributions?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1} = I \cdot p\hspace{0.3cm} \Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} m_\text{1, Blau}  = 5 \cdot 0.4\underline{ = 2 =}  \ m_\text{1, Rot} = 10 \cdot 0.2; $&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Dispersion:}\hspace{0.4cm}\sigma = \sqrt{I \cdot p \cdot (1-p)} = \sqrt{m_1 \cdot (1-p)}\hspace{0.3cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \sigma_{\rm Blau} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.6} =1.095 \le \sigma_{\rm Rot} = \sqrt{2 \cdot 0.8} = 1.265.$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Set &#039;&#039;&#039;Blue&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Binomial distribution $(I=15, p=0.3)$ and &#039;&#039;&#039;Red&#039;&#039;&#039; to: Poisson distribution $(\lambda=4.5)$.&lt;br /&gt;
:What differences arise between both distributions regarding the average $m_1$ and variance $\sigma^2$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm}\text{Both distributions have the same average:}\hspace{0.2cm}m_\text{1, Blau}  =  I \cdot p\ = 15 \cdot 0.3\hspace{0.15cm}\underline{ = 4.5 =} \  m_\text{1, Rot} = \lambda$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm} \text{Binomial distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Blue}^2 = m_\text{1, Blue} \cdot (1-p)\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 3.15} \le \text{Poisson distribution: }\hspace{0.2cm} \sigma_\text{Red}^2 = \lambda\hspace{0.15cm}\underline { = 4.5}$;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(5)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what are the probabilities ${\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10)$ and ${\rm Pr}(z \gt 15)$}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - {\rm Pr}(z  \le 10) = 1 - 0.9993 = 0.0007;\hspace{0.3cm} {\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) = 0$.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{Poisson: }\hspace{0.2cm} {\rm Pr}(z  \gt 10) = 1 - 0.9933 = 0.0067;\hspace{0.3cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \gt 0\hspace{0.5cm}\text{Approximation: }\hspace{0.2cm}{\rm Pr}(z \gt 15) \ge {\rm Pr}(z = 16) = \frac{\lambda^{16} }{16!}\approx 2 \cdot 10^{-22}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
{{BlaueBox|TEXT=&lt;br /&gt;
&#039;&#039;&#039;(6)&#039;&#039;&#039;&amp;amp;nbsp; Using the same settings as &#039;&#039;&#039;(4)&#039;&#039;&#039;, what parameters result in a symmetric distribution around $m_1$?}}&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.0cm}\Rightarrow\hspace{0.3cm} \text{Binomial distribution with }p = 0.5\text{:   }p_\mu =  {\rm Pr}(z  = \mu)\text{ symmetric around } m_1 = I/2 = 7.5 \ ⇒  \ p_μ = p_{I–μ}\ ⇒  \  p_8 = p_7, \ p_9 = p_6,  \text{etc.}$ &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
$\hspace{1.85cm}\text{On the other hand the Poissonverteilung is never symmetric, since it extends infinitely!}$&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
==Über die Autoren==&lt;br /&gt;
Dieses interaktive Berechnungstool  wurde am [http://www.lnt.ei.tum.de/startseite Lehrstuhl für Nachrichtentechnik] der [https://www.tum.de/ Technischen Universität München] konzipiert und realisiert. &lt;br /&gt;
*Die erste Version wurde 2003 von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Ji_Li_.28Bachelorarbeit_EI_2003.2C_Diplomarbeit_EI_2005.29|Ji Li]] im Rahmen ihrer Diplomarbeit mit &amp;amp;bdquo;FlashMX&amp;amp;ndash;Actionscript&amp;amp;rdquo; erstellt (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Mitarbeiter_und_Dozenten#Prof._Dr.-Ing._habil._G.C3.BCnter_S.C3.B6der_.28am_LNT_seit_1974.29|Günter Söder]]). &lt;br /&gt;
*2018 wurde dieses Programm  von [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/An_LNTwww_beteiligte_Studierende#Jimmy_He_.28Bachelorarbeit_2018.29|Jimmy He]] im Rahmen seiner Bachelorarbeit (Betreuer: [[Biografien_und_Bibliografien/Beteiligte_der_Professur_Leitungsgebundene_%C3%9Cbertragungstechnik#Tasn.C3.A1d_Kernetzky.2C_M.Sc._.28bei_L.C3.9CT_seit_2014.29|Tasnád Kernetzky]] &amp;amp;ndash; Mitarbeiter der Professur &amp;amp;bdquo;Leitungsgebundene Übertragungstechnik&amp;amp;bdquo;)  auf  &amp;amp;bdquo;HTML5&amp;amp;rdquo; umgesetzt und neu gestaltet.&lt;br /&gt;
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==Nochmalige Aufrufmöglichkeit des Applets in neuem Fenster==&lt;br /&gt;
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{{LntAppletLink|verzerrungen}}&lt;/div&gt;</summary>
		<author><name>Jimmy</name></author>
	</entry>
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